Genome-wide analyses of Liberibacter species provides insights into evolution, phylogenetic relationships, and virulence factors.

'Candidatus Liberibacter' species are insect-transmitted, phloem-limited α-Proteobacteria in the order of Rhizobiales. The citrus industry is facing significant challenges due to huanglongbing, associated with infection from 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus' (Las). In order to gain greater insight into 'Ca. Liberibacter' biology and genetic diversity, we have performed genome sequencing and comparative analyses of diverse 'Ca. Liberibacter' species, including those that can infect citrus. Our phylogenetic analysis differentiates 'Ca. Liberibacter' species and Rhizobiales in separate clades and suggests stepwise evolution from a common ancestor splitting first into nonpathogenic Liberibacter crescens followed by diversification of pathogenic 'Ca. Liberibacter' species. Further analysis of Las genomes from different geographical locations revealed diversity among isolates from the United States. Our phylogenetic study also indicates multiple Las introduction events in California and spread of the pathogen from Florida to Texas. Texan Las isolates were closely related, while Florida and Asian isolates exhibited the most genetic variation. We have identified conserved Sec translocon (SEC)-dependent effectors likely involved in bacterial survival and virulence of Las and analysed their expression in their plant host (citrus) and insect vector (Diaphorina citri). Individual SEC-dependent effectors exhibited differential expression patterns between host and vector, indicating that Las uses its effector repertoire to differentially modulate diverse organisms. Collectively, this work provides insights into the evolution of 'Ca. Liberibacter' species, the introduction of Las in the United States and identifies promising Las targets for disease management

Communities of Innovation

This Article examines and evaluates the theory that patent holders privately self-correct the government’s excessive apportionment of patent rights by means of various cooperative efforts including patent pools, research consortia, and similar licensing collectives. According to some experts, these efforts are proof that market participants have the wisdom and the will to collectively disarm their patent arsenals in order to advance long-term innovation. But until now, this theory of market self-correction has not been evaluated through empirical study. Drawing on interviews and original research, this Article provides an ethnographic view of collective patent licensing episodes. Amidst these stories of success and failure, cooperation and conflict, the picture that emerges is more complex than theory alone predicts: government policies, the backward-looking concern of litigation over existing products, and various social goals significantly influence collective patent licensing. This study suggests some important refinements to theory and points the way forward for industry, lawmakers, and the public to begin a new discussion about the role of collective behavior in our patent system

Tackling plastic pollution in New Zealand’s fin fishing industry Case study: Moana NZ

This study aims to seek ways to prevent marine plastic pollution leakage in New Zealand’s commercial fin fishing industry supply chains. Drawing on a case study approach, this research investigates how sea and land-based plastic material flows are perceived by those working for commercial fishing company Moana NZ. It considers current global, regional and national policies, as well as current initiatives that seek to minimise marine plastic pollution and considers the potential for their implementation in this context. This study also acknowledges the significant role that industry can play in implementing best practice guided by the top of the zero waste hierarchy.falseLondo

Communities of Innovation

This Article examines and evaluates the theory that patent holders privately self-correct the government’s excessive apportionment of patent rights by means of various cooperative efforts including patent pools, research consortia, and similar licensing collectives. According to some experts, these efforts are proof that market participants have the wisdom and the will to collectively disarm their patent arsenals in order to advance long-term innovation. But until now, this theory of market self-correction has not been evaluated through empirical study. Drawing on interviews and original research, this Article provides an ethnographic view of collective patent licensing episodes. Amidst these stories of success and failure, cooperation and conflict, the picture that emerges is more complex than theory alone predicts: government policies, the backward-looking concern of litigation over existing products, and various social goals significantly influence collective patent licensing. This study suggests some important refinements to theory and points the way forward for industry, lawmakers, and the public to begin a new discussion about the role of collective behavior in our patent system

A temporal record of microplastic pollution in Mediterranean seagrass soils

© 2021 Elsevier Ltd Plastic pollution is emerging as a potential threat to the marine environment. In the current study, we selected seagrass meadows, known to efficiently trap organic and inorganic particles, to investigate the concentrations and dynamics of microplastics in their soil. We assessed microplastic contamination and accumulation in 210Pb dated soil cores collected in Posidonia oceanica meadows at three locations along the Spanish Mediterranean coast, with two sites located in the Almería region (Agua Amarga and Roquetas) and one at Cabrera Island (Santa Maria). Almería is known for its intense agricultural industry with 30 000 ha of plastic-covered greenhouses, while the Cabrera Island is situated far from urban areas. Microplastics were extracted using enzymatic digestion and density separation. The particles were characterized by visual identification and with Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and related to soil age-depth chronologies. Our findings showed that the microplastic contamination and accumulation was negligible until the mid-1970s, after which plastic particles increased dramatically, with the highest concentrations of microplastic particles (MPP) found in the recent (since 2012) surface soil of Agua Amarga (3819 MPP kg−1), followed by the top-most layers of the soil of the meadows in Roquetas (2173 kg−1) and Santa Maria (68–362 kg−1). The highest accumulation rate was seen in the Roquetas site (8832 MPP m−2 yr−1). The increase in microplastics in the seagrass soil was associated to land-use change following the intensification of the agricultural industry in the area, with a clear relationship between the development of the greenhouse industry in Almería and the concentration of microplastics in the historical soil record. This study shows a direct linkage between intense anthropogenic activity, an extensive use of plastics and high plastic contamination in coastal marine ecosystems such as seagrass meadows. We highlight the need of proper waste management to protect the coastal environment from continuous pollution

The Intellectual Property of COVID-19

The response to COVID-19 is indissolubly tied to intellectual property. In an increasingly globalized world in which infectious disease pathogens travel faster and wider than before, the development of vaccines, treatments and other forms of medical technology has become an integral part of public health preparedness and response frameworks. The development of these technologies, and to a certain extent the allocation and distribution of resulting outputs, is informed by intellectual property regimes. These regimes influence the commitment of R&D resources, shape scientific collaborations and, in some cases, may condition the widespread availability of emerging technologies. As seen throughout this chapter, COVID-19 has exposed the shortcomings of ingrained reliance on intellectual property as a channel for the production and dissemination of medical technologies needed to address the problems posed by pandemics and epidemics. At the same time, COVID-19 has brought new life to countervailing efforts to explore legal and policy mechanisms to potentially offset some of the problems posed by the pervasiveness of, and shortcomings associated with, intellectual property dynamics. In tracing the dual ways in which intellectual property has affected preparedness for, and the response to, COVID-19, this chapter highlights three features of contemporary intellectual property regimes and examines their impact on innovation(s) needed to address public health crises. First, it explores the incentives function of patent law and policy, which places considerable emphasis on market-driven investment in R&D on medical technologies. In so doing, intellectual property becomes one of the driving forces of the commodification of goods—vaccines, drugs or ventilator parts, for example—which are best understood as public health goods. Second, the chapter illustrates how intellectual property has reinforced an ethos of siloed R&D, as illustrated by the COVID-19 vaccine race, which at the time of writing includes hundreds of separate vaccine development projects. These siloes further extend into the allocative domain: with the development of medical technologies now largely steeped in proprietary frameworks, several countries have resumed the practice of reserving significant amounts of emerging technologies for their domestic populations, thus curtailing the possibility of equitable transnational approaches to a global public health crisis. This approach is commonly known in the field of vaccines as “vaccine nationalism.” Nationalism skews the distribution of medical technologies developed during a pandemic, reducing opportunities for transnational coordination and potentially limiting access to these technologies by populations in economically disadvantaged parts of the world. The chapter ends nonetheless on a positive note, as COVID-19 has also made it abundantly clear that the legal infrastructure needed to address many of these problems is already in place. Early in the pandemic, several countries signaled that they would rely on intellectual property mechanisms to ensure broad and equitable access to medical technologies developed during (and possibly after) the pandemic, such as vaccines and treatments for COVID-19. These mechanisms embody different types of commitments to share intellectual property, data and knowledge. At the allocative level, a significant number of countries joined an ad hoc vaccine distribution facility (COVAX) coordinated by Geneva-based international organizations. These efforts, albeit nascent and, in many cases, likely transient nature, constitute meaningful steps towards a better innovation ecosystem for medical technologies needed to prevent and respond to future pandemic