The French Revolution and early European revolutionary terrorism

This chapter discusses some of the antecedents to the 'Terror' in the French Revolution before exploring the relationship between different forms of political terror in the 1790s in revolutionary France. It finishes by exploring how terror in different forms was used by political movements in Europe in the first half of the nineteenth century

Waxing Revolutionary: Reflections on a Raid on a Waxworks at the Outbreak of the French Revolution

[First paragraph] Parisians from all walks of life were already accustomed to watching heads roll before the Revolution of 1789. This is not a reference to public executions of the time (beheadings were reserved for the nobility and were rare events) but to another cultural spectacle of late eighteenth-century Paris, one which was sufficiently well-known to become the object of a satirical print in 1787. Entitled ‘Avis au public: Têtes à changer’, the print by P. D. Viviez lampoons the unceremonious updating of fashionable or celebrated waxwork figures displayed in the popular entertainments district of the Boulevard du Temple [See Figure 1]. It shows wax heads being handed down from shelves; heads being replaced on models; one head about to be struck off with a chisel; another head lies discarded on the ground, being sniffed at by a little cat. All of this takes place in front of a crowd of curious, chatty onlookers

Freedom of science

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to highlight the importance of "freedom of science"("academic freedom")for the advancement of society and mankind, which, however, is permanently endangered by powerful organisations, groups and individuals, who in pursuit of their one-sided interests are seeking to constrain information about the truth. As a broad term, freedom of science embraces freedom in research, learning, teachingand publication. All of these activities should be dedicated to identifying the truth and learning about the truth. Design/methodology/approach – Three theoretical approaches are of importance for framing issues related to freedom of science, which in this paper are integrated into the framework of mindset agency theory: freedom is a value; "freedom" is claimed by agents who pursue specific interests (goals), which might constrain others; and individuals are agents who are interacting with each other within a social system–cooperation, ignorance or conflict. Findings – Freedom as a value is at the core of intellectual autonomy. Intellectual autonomy is a necessarycondition for innovation and advancement of knowledge. The observable modes of interaction/coexistenceamong researchers are influenced by individual research goals and by the researchers' access to resources, which may be deliberately constrained by opponents or other researchers as competitors. Research limitations/implications – For further research, which is beyond this paper, the authors can refer to: analyses of challenges of "academic freedom" – in terms of ethics, protection of individual humanrights, political pressures and conflicts of interests; the issues of truth, i.e. the impact of fake news andcreation of "alternate facts"; and the relation between academic freedom and employment (academic tenure) inpresent-day societies. Owing to lack of space, this paper cannot deal with the danger emerging from powerful organisations or powerful individuals, who are challenging freedom of science. Social implications–If there is no freedom of science then social progress is constrained. If there is no access to right data, decisions will be wrong. Originality/value – So far, a comprehensive cybernetic model was not published, which supports systems thinking about scholars and teachers (inter)acting in research organisations

Trading Spaces: An Analysis of Gendered Spaces Before, During, and After the French Revolution of 1789 and the Mexican Revolution of 1910

This thesis investigates the affects of the French Revolution of 1789 and the Mexican Revolution of 1910 on gender roles in their respective societies. Women that contributed to political discourse challenged separations of public and private spheres, which dictated order in the late and postrevolutionary periods of France and Mexico. Given the deliberate acts by both postrevolutionary governments to send women to the periphery of their respective societies, it is vital to revisit the examples of female influence that shaped the early French and Mexican Revolutions. The understanding that comes from a detailed analysis of the parameters of gendered spaces before, during, and after revolution sheds light on the relationships between order and gender that determined the future of women in their respective postrevolutionary worlds

The Reign of Terror: Mission Failure

The Reign of Terror marks one of the bloodiest periods in recorded history. After a period of striving for a government for the people, the French were left to properly govern. The task at hand was complicated by the sheer paranoia that was fostered during the revolution. The threats of foreign invasion, of domestic uprising, and a thirst for justice only complicated matters. The Committee of Public Safety was meant to assuage these fears. It failed terribly. This essay deals with the downfall of the Committee of Public Safety of the burgeoning French Republic. In a bid to protect their new government, members of the committee used Madame Guillotine to solve their problems. This proved a fatal calculation that plummeted the new government down a path of self-destruction. The authors of the Republic became the very monsters that they had just fought so hard to defeat and the committee meant to solve France’s problems became its largest one

From Citoyenne to Amazon: The Evolution of Women’s Political Self-Identity during the French Revolution, 1789 – 1793

French women were already presenting concerns and ideas into the charged atmosphere during the summoning of the Estates General before the Revolution of 1789 began. This meeting of members from all classes of French society was elected to present the citizens’ concerns to King Louis XVI. From their petition to the king on January 1, 1789 to the laws prohibiting women from gathering in clubs in 1793, women made themselves heard by many means, yet there was never any one particular group or movement which encompassed the entirety of the female population of France. Women’s involvement varied from impassioned pleas for assistance and new guarantees of rights for women before the Revolution to “Amazons,” a reference to the classical warrior women who dominated their society and lived separately from the rest of the world. These “Amazons” used radical democratic methods, such as rioting and protesting in large crowds, to control or make changes to affairs and activities within the new Republic. During this time, however, some women paid in blood for expressing their views and the newly formed “representative” government used their executions to inspire fear in these upstarts who dared to create chaos in New France

Revolution

This chapter compares the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1989 to examine the usefulness of the concepts of 'risk', and 'threat' in the development of revolutionary situations

Apie socialines revoliucijas ir restauracijas Naujųjų laikų istorijoje

Sharp opposition between revolution as a positively valued and dominant term and restoration as its subordinated complement, loaded with negative meaning, is one of the legacies of the 1789 French Revolution. This may be the main reason why social restorations still are neglected in the philosophy of history and historical sociology, although both types of modern revolutions (French 1789 or “bourgeois” and Russian 1917 or “socialist”) did end with restorations. This paper proposes revisions to only attempt at the theory of social restorations (by Austrian American comparativist Robert Kann (1906-1981) to make it applicable to post-communist restorations. They include the distinction between type and token restorations, endurance and performance success of restorations, and a new formulation of the criterion of endurance success.Griežta revoliucijos kaip pozityviai vertinamo bet dominuojančio termino, ir restauracijos kaip jos subordinuoto papildinio priešstata yra 1789 m. Prancūzijos revoliucijos dalis. Ji gali būti pagrindinė priežastis, kodėl istorijos filosofoja ir istorinė sociologija vis dar ignoruoja socialines restauracijas, nors abiejų tipų modernios revoliucijos (1789 m. Prancūzijos arba „buržuazinės“ ir 1917 m. Rusijos arba „socialistinės“) užsibaigė restauracijomis. Šiame straipsnyje pateikiamos pataisos kol kas vieninteliam bandymui išplėtoti socialinių restauracijų teoriją, kurios autorius yra austrų kilmės amerikiečių komparatyvistas Robertas Kannas (1906-1981), siekiant padaryti ją pritaikomą pokomunistinėms restauracijoms. Šios pataisos apima skirtį tarp tipo restauracijos ir realizacijos restauracijos bei skirtį tarp restauracijos trukmės sėkmės ir veikmės sėkmės, o taip pat naują trukmės sėkmės kriterijaus formuluotę

The Fall of the Bastille

This research paper provides an indepth look into why the Bastille fell at the beginning of the French Revolution. While many people believe it was because of rising bread prices, the fall of the Bastille was actually caused by fear, rumor, and crowd psychology

Old Gods in New Clothes: The French Revolutionary Cults and the Rebirth of the Golden Age

The French Revolution\u27s state cults were possible because of French intellectuals\u27 preference for pre-Christian Greco-Roman civilization, as well as France\u27s history of heterodoxy. The philosophes endorsed ancient Greco-Roman civilization as embodying mankind\u27s ideal and more natural state; French revolutionary leaders avidly read these ideas of the Enlightenment philosophers. This Enlightenment Classicalism influenced the designers of the French state religions to mirror Greco-Roman paganism in the new regime\u27s festivals and iconography. The French people\u27s fascination with the Occult further created the cultural and intellectual climate for the creation and acceptance of these new religions of the dechristianized republic. Under this worldview, the French revolutionaries viewed themselves as the heralds of a reborn mytho-historical Golden Age of rationalism, equality, and Nature