조경 드로잉의 역사와 디지털 재현의 '포토-페이크'에 대한 비평

학위논문 (박사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 : 조경학, 2017. 2. 배정한.이 연구는 디지털 조경 드로잉의 시각화 테크닉과 컴퓨터 테크놀로지의 이용 방식이 역사적으로 어디서 비롯되었는지를 파악하고, 이를 바탕으로 최근 디지털 조경 드로잉에 나타나는 회화적 사실주의에 대한 열망을 해석하고자 하였다. 구체적으로, 손에서 컴퓨터에 이르는 조경 드로잉 테크닉의 역사를 포괄적으로 검토하고, 드로잉 매체가 손에서 컴퓨터로 이행하는 과정에서 컴퓨터 테크놀로지가 담당했던 역할을 파악한 후, 현재의 디지털 프리젠테이션 드로잉에 만연한 사실주의적 묘사 경향을 비판적으로 진단하였다. 먼저, 손 드로잉의 역사를 검토하여 조경 드로잉의 특성과 변천 과정을 개관하였다. 조경 드로잉은 도구성과 상상성이라는 호환가능하고 상대적인 두 특성을 지니고 있고, 그러한 특성은 투사, 퍼스펙티브 뷰, 다이어그램이라는 구체적 드로잉 유형으로 구현되어 왔다. 이러한 드로잉 관습은 뚜렷이 구별된다기보다 오히려 상호 보완적으로 혼성화되면서 설계 경관에 대한 비전을 시각화해 왔는데, 특히 식물 소재는 회화적 퍼스펙티브 뷰의 형식을 취한 채 투사 드로잉과 혼성화되는 경향이 있었다. 물론, 특정 지역과 시기에 특정 정원 양식에 적합한 드로잉 유형이 등장하고 때때로 우세하는 방식으로 나타났다. 16세기 이탈리아 르네상스 정원과 17세기 프랑스 바로크 정원 설계에는 투사 드로잉이 중요했고, 18세기에서 19세기 초 영국 풍경화식 정원 드로잉에서는 회화적 묘사가 강조된 퍼스펙티브 뷰의 형식이 선호되었다. 19세기 중후반 조경이라는 영역이 확립되어가던 시기의 미국에서 드로잉은 용도에 따라 분화되고 대상지 조사에 적합한 맵 오버레이 기법이 등장하기 시작하였고, 20세기 초중반 미국의 모더니스트는 설계 전략을 시각화하기 위해 다이어그램을 이용하기 시작했다. 하지만 이러한 다양한 드로잉 방식은 그것이 출연한 이후에는 대체로 공존해 왔고, 드로잉의 도구성과 상상성은 종종 상호 보완적으로 혼성화되어 설계 경관을 시각화하였다. 둘째, 현재 조경 설계에 이용되는 주요 시각화 테크닉의 매체가 손에서 컴퓨터로 이행하던 시기를 검토하여 이 때 컴퓨터 테크놀로지가 담당했던 주요 역할을 분석하였다. 대체로 컴퓨터는 손 드로잉의 테크닉을 모방하거나 컴퓨터 파일의 형식으로 번역하는 기계적 도구로 기능했다. 먼저, 경관 정보를 과학적으로 시각화하는 이안 맥하그의 맵 오버레이 기법, 일명 레이어 케이크의 매체가 손에서 GIS 소프트웨어로 이행하는 1970–80년대에, 컴퓨터는 손으로 처리되던 맵 오버레이 분석의 인벤토리, 가치 평가, 시각화를 대신 처리해주는 효율적 기계 도구로 기능하였다. 또한, 캐서린 구스타프슨과 조지 하그리브스는 1980–90년대부터 랜드폼을 스터디하기 위해 물리적 모형을 만들어왔고, 이 과정에서 CAD 소프트웨어는 그러한 모형을 시공 도면이라는 투사 드로잉으로 번역하는 모사 도구로 기능하였다. 1980–90년대 이브 브리니어, 아드리안 허즈, 제임스 코너 등이 만들어온 물리적 재료를 이용한 콜라주와 몽타주 기법도 1990년대 후반부터 포토샵으로 대표되는 그래픽 소프트웨어를 통해 제작되고 있는데, 이 과정에서도 그러한 소프트웨어는 대체로 수작업과 유사한 절차를 처리하는데 이용되고 있었다. 예외로, 제임스 코너는 2001년 프레쉬킬스 공모전 당선작에서 그래픽 테크놀로지의 잠재력을 활용하여 플랜 콜라주라는 테크닉을 발명하고 이를 설계 아이디어를 발전시키는 생성적 도구로 이용했다. 셋째, 최근 디지털 프리젠테이션 드로잉에 만연한 사실주의적 묘사 경향을 비판적으로 진단하였다. 대중과의 의사 소통이 점차 중요해지면서 조경 설계에서 프리젠테이션 드로잉의 제작이 차지하는 비중이 커지고 있고, 여기서 경관의 외양을 사실적으로 묘사하려는 경향이 있다. 조경가는 역사적으로 설계 경관의 외양을 회화적으로 묘사하는 기법에 익숙했고, 포토샵과 같은 그래픽 소프트웨어는 그러한 기법을 효과적으로 처리해내는 도구로 이용되고 있다. 이러한 경향은 사진 합성을 통해 만들어지는 퍼스펙티브 뷰에서 잘 드러나는데, 포토샵의 다양한 명령어를 통해서 사진 재료의 조립 흔적이 지워지고 회화적 환영을 만들어내는 다양한 효과가 덧입혀져 현실의 경관을 포착한 한 장의 사진처럼 보이도록 생산되고 있다. 이 연구는 그러한 시각화 기법과 이미지를 포토-페이크로 정의하고, 근래에 개최된 국제 공모전 출품작의 프리젠테이션 드로잉을 사례로 하여 그것의 구체적 조건을 분석했다. 포토-페이크의 조건은 보이지 않는 프레임과 관찰자의 자리, 환영을 만들어내는 방법, 배경으로서의 경관과 구경꾼으로서의 인물, 그리고 디지털 아우라이다. 포토-페이크 제작에는 이전의 수작업에서 이용되던 테크닉이 재등장하는데, 그러한 기법은 18세기 픽처레스크 미학이나 17세기 역사주의적 풍경화를 비롯한 시각 문화의 영향을 받고 있었다. 포토-페이크 이미지는 대중들의 시선을 쉽게 사로잡을 수 있는 효과적 의사 소통 수단이지만, 동시에 시각 이미지라는 한계 때문에 경관의 다감각적 특성을 온전하게 시각화하기는 힘들다. 따라서 그러한 기법은 조경가의 설계 경관에 대한 비전을 잘 드러내도록 활용되어야 할 것이다. 또한 경관의 외양뿐만 아니라 기능 정보를 시각화하는 삼차원 모델링 기법, 다양한 드로잉 유형과 테크놀로지의 혼성적 이용 방식은 경관의 다채로운 국면을 탐구하고 설계 아이디어를 발전시키는 창조적 도구로 활용될 수 있다. 조경가의 설계 아이디어를 곧바로 현실에 조성할 수 없다면, 그러한 아이디어는 불가피하게 어떠한 형식이든 시각화의 과정을 거치게 된다. 설계 아이디어를 생성하고 발전시켜나가며 동시에 디지털 테크놀로지의 잠재력을 이끌어낼 수 있는 시각화 테크닉의 창조적 실험이 조경 이론뿐만 아니라 실천에서 충만해지길 기대한다.This dissertation explores historical landscape architectural visualization techniques and ways of using computer technology and then offers a critique of the pervasive trend towards realism in the recent digital landscape representation. Specifically, it examines historical representational techniques in landscape design from manual drawings to recent computerized visualsit also explores the role of computer technology in landscape representation during media transition from hand to computer and critically analyses the trends of realistic pictorial depiction in recent digital landscape visualization. Firstly, examining the history of manual drawings, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics and functions of landscape representation and historical changes regarding specific techniques. Landscape architectural drawing has double functions, namely, illustration of not-yet-actualized landscapes (i.e. instrumentality) and generation of creative ideas (i.e. imagination), which are relative, interchangeable, and transformable. These characteristics have been embodied in the forms of particular types of drawing, projections, perspective views, and diagrams, whose characteristics are not so much clearly distinguishable as rather mutually complementary and hybridized in such a way that pictorial views of plants frequently are hybridized to projection drawings. Of course, particular drawing types or techniques have often emerged as suitable and thereby dominant forms, depending on particular historical styles of landscape design. Sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance gardens and seventeenth-century French formal gardens were generally visualized in the form of projections. Eighteenth-century and early nineteenth-century English landscape gardens were frequently represented in pictorial perspective view. In nineteenth-century America, the professional identity of landscape architecture started to be established and different drawing types were specialized depending on their respective functions. Furthermore, the map overlay method for site analysis emerged. Twentieth-century American modernists began to explore the diagram to deploy design strategies. However, such drawing types and methods have coexisted after their emergenceinstrumentality and imagination have been frequently hybridized for the visualization of future landscapes. Secondly, this work discusses the early history of the initial uses of major computer software to shed light on the major roles of such technologies in landscape visualization in the period of transition from conventional drawing tools. Computer technologies generally functioned as mechanical tools to imitate previous manual techniques and translate physical media into computer files. In the 1970s to 1980s, the medium of the map overlay analysis of Ian McHarg, namely, layer cake, changed from manual to computerized. In the transition of technologies, the computerized Geographic Information System served as a mechanical tool substituting the hand in that the GIS efficiently used methods similar to manual procedures, including inventory, evaluation, and visualization. Since the 1980s, Kathryn Gustafson and George Hargreaves have used physical modelling, such as sand and clay models, for landform study. In realizing such models on site, the CAD software generally functioned to translate three-dimensional (3D) models to two-dimensional (2D) construction documents, i.e. projection drawings. In the next two decades, landscape architects, including Yves Brunier, Adriaan Gueze, and James Corner, deployed the collage and montage using mixed media and photographic materials. Since the late-1990s, manual techniques have been increasingly produced using graphic editing software, such as Adobe Photoshop, which generally functioned as a tool to perform processes similar to those of manual techniques. In Lifescape, the winning proposal in the Fresh Kills Park competition in 2001, as an exception, Corner fully exploited the potential of graphic software to explore creative visualization techniques, including plan collage, which was used to develop the design idea in the design process. Thirdly, this research offers a critique of the dominant trend towards realism in recent digital landscape representations. Since 2000, in landscape design, presentation drawings adopting a realistic depiction have gained increasing importance in communication with the public. Landscape architects, historically, have frequently used pictorial depictions of the appearance of landscapes as a dominant representational techniqueadvanced graphic editing software, including Photoshop, make it possible to achieve this desire for realism effectively. This trend is epitomized by perspective views using the composite photographic technique. In representations, discernible traces of cutting and assembling are removed, and visual effects are applied to create illusions via various commands and filters in the software. Thus, the complete representations are perceived as if they were a copy of an actual landscape. To refer to such representations, this dissertation coined the term photo-fake, whose several conditions (invisible frame and viewers position, illusions, landscape as theatre and human figures as spectators, and digital aura) were analysed by scrutinizing the visuals of recent international design competitions. These techniques often imitate previous manual methods, which historically date back to at least the eighteenth-century picturesque aesthetics and seventeenth-century historical landscape paintings. Whereas the photo-fake image can easily capture the publics eye, it is difficult for the static visuals to achieve full embodiment of all of the multisensory characteristics of a landscape. Thus, photo-fake techniques need to be exploited to deploy a designers specific vision of the not-yet-actualized designed landscape. Furthermore, digital modelling of landscape performance and various hybridized techniques with different drawing types and technologies provide the opportunity to explore various aspects of landscape and stimulate design ideas during the design process. If a designers vision of a future landscape cannot be immediately realized on the actual site, then such visions inevitably need to be visualized in other forms. Thus, visualization techniques, both to generate creative idea and exploit the potential of digital technology, need to continue to be simultaneously explored in landscape theory and practice.I. Introduction 1 1.1. Research Purpose 1 1.2. Research Objectives and Theoretical Perspective 5 1.3. Literature Review 6 1.4. Structure 11 II. Rethinking the History of Manual Drawing 14 2.1. Hybridization of Instrumentality and Imagination 14 2.1.1. Instrumentality and Imagination 14 2.1.2. Hybridization 24 2.2. Manual Drawings in History 37 2.2.1. Projection: The Italian Renaissance and French Formal Gardens 37 2.2.2. Pictorial Representation: The English Landscape Gardens 44 2.2.3. Diverse Specialization of Drawing: The 19th-century America and Frederick Law Olmsted 51 2.2.4. Emergence of Diagram: Modernism in America 57 III. Technological Transition 63 3.1. Hand and Computer Drawings 63 3.2. Transition from Hand to Computer 72 3.2.1. Scientific Visualization of Landscape Information: Map Overlay Method 72 3.2.2. Landform Simulation: Model Making 88 3.2.3. Exploration of Perspective View: Collage and Montage 100 IV. Digital Landscape Representations Photo-fake 124 4.1. Pictorial in Digital Landscape Representation 124 4.2. Photo-fake 134 4.2.1. Defining Photo-fake 134 4.2.2. Photo-fake Conditions 143 4.2.3. Opportunities and Limitations of the Photo-fake 156 4.2.4. Korean Landscape Architecture 160 4.3. Beyond the Depiction of Appearance 164 4.3.1. Modelling Landscape Performance 164 4.3.2. Hybridization Strategies 172 V. Conclusion 177 Bibliography 180 List of Illustrations 192 국문초록 201Docto

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Young peoples’ voices have been considered irrelevant or unreliable when it comes to discussing the influence and impact of their engagement with screen-mediated depictions of violence. Historically, such viewpoints have been derived from the controlled experimentation of modernist psychology, which constitutes the most sustained and prominent enquiries into the consequences of individual participation in, and viewing of, simulated violence. In espousing an impersonal approach, psychological research has opted not to demonstrate any understanding of the properties of the particular games or the medium its findings have been used to denigrate. Neither does its research possess broader awareness of the social dimensions of play or the productivity inherent in the practices of its surrounding cultures. This paper introduces findings taken from a two-year project that attempted to draw together what have essentially remained separate lines of inquiry – the critical and analytical scrutiny of Game Studies applied to understanding the pleasures of engagement with game violence. The aim of this research was to achieve a more contextual understanding of texts that utilise violence from the perspective of young people that opt to experience them as an entertainment form. In doing so, a range of qualitative methods were employed to encourage game players to present their viewpoints and offer a voice that is all too often absent from the ‘one-way debate’ attached to the representation of violence within games

Archaeology for all: Overview of public outreach within the 'Vinča project', Serbia

Arheološko nalazište Belo brdo u Vinči iskopavano je u nekoliko serija terenskih kampanja. Pre inicijalnih istraživanja, lokalitet, odnosno njegov arheološki sadržaj bili su manje-više poznati samo žiteljima sela, odnosno predgrađa Vinča. Prva istraživanja odigrala su se početkom 20. veka i proslavila su lokalitet. Ti najraniji radovi na terenu i spektakularna otkrića privukli su pažnju lokalnih i inostranih časopisa onog vremena i zahvaljujući tome široka publika je mogla da dobije prvi uvid u arheologiju Vinče te prepozna značaj ovog nalazišta. Arheološkom timu su se tada priključili pojedinci izvan struke, a njihov angažman bio je ključan za obezbeđivanje finansijskih sredstava za istraživanje, pre svega onih iz inostranih izvora. Uprkos tome što je, s jedne strane, važnost lokaliteta isticana u javnosti, a s druge - uočena šteta koju su nalazištu nanosili reka Dunav i širenje savremenog naselja na areal lokaliteta, nikakav trud nije uložen u fizičku i pravnu zaštitu ovog arheološkog nasleđa. Istraživanja u drugoj polovini 20. veka odvijala su se u uslovima pojačanog interesovanja za arheologiju, te su imala primetno veći publicitet. To je bila glavna prednost, koja je omogućila da se šira javnost edukuje u pogledu karakteristika i načina života u praistorijskom naselju u Vinči, a istovremeno i da se istaknu uloga i relevantnost arheološkog istraživačkog rada. Tadašnji istraživači Vinče bili su svesni potrebe (i prednosti) približavanja lokaliteta i naučnog rada različitoj publici. Zahvaljujući njihovom zalaganju na ovom planu, nalazište je proglašeno za kulturno dobro od nacionalnog interesa i stavljeno pod pravnu zaštitu. U 21. veku, arheolozi-istraživači Vinče su uložili znatnu količinu energije u javnu prezentaciju i promociju nalazišta i naučnog rada. Osnovni cilj bio je da se oprobaju nove metode popularizacije arheoloških nalazišta i rezultata, a da se pritom javnost uključi u arheologiju preko neposredne komunikacije sa arheolozima i kroz zajedničke aktivnosti. Na osnovu prisustva ili odsustva interakcije sa publikom, i njenog oblika, primenjeni pristupi prezentaciji naučnog rada na Vinči mogu se svrstati u nekoliko kategorija: indirektan pristup (izložbe fotografija u realnom i virtuelnom okruženju), direktan (uobičajene galerijske izložbe, predavanja za širu publiku), interaktivan (podrazumeva neposredan kontakt između publike i arheologa ili publike i arheoloških nalaza) i praktičan (aktivnosti i radionice za decu). Dobar deo ovih poduhvata iziskivao je veliku energiju i upornost, ali su rezultati bili nadasve ohrabrujući i inspirisali su dalji trud. Zamišljene aktivnosti izuzetno dobro je prihvatila nenaučna publika, koja je bila veoma raznovrsna u pogledu starosnog doba, interesovanja, profesije, finansijskog i društvenog statusa. Ako se imaju u vidu sve češće pogrešne i zlonamerne interpretacije nalazišta u Vinči, ključni su i krajnje relevantni napori arheologa da dopru do najšire moguće publike, te da je uključe u promotivne aktivnosti i na taj način edukuju. Ovaj aspekt shvatamo kao neophodan i integralan deo arheološkog rada na Vinči i smatramo da upravo arheolozi nose odgovornost za izgradnju odgovarajuće i naučno zasnovane slike o arheološkim otkrićima i njihovom značaju. Fokus u budućnosti treba da bude na udruživanju snaga sa lokalnom zajednicom u pogledu planiranja i realizacije promotivnih aktivnosti, kao i na uspostavljanju partnerstva i saradnje sa drugim zainteresovanim stranama.Science outreach has increasingly been recognised as a method of promoting research institutions, areas, process, results, and of contributing to the awareness and education of the public. This paper describes many different ways - some unconventional and highly imaginative - in which the archaeologists working at the site of Vinča in Serbia presented and promoted their work to the widest possible audience. The activities are provisionally placed into categories: indirect, direct, interactive and hands-on, indicating the route by which the information was conveyed to the public, but also reflecting the nature of the public response. The likely most effective, and certainly most enriching, were the outreach actions envisaged as a two-way process, enabling the flow of information between the presenters and the audience. Some new venues in publicising the research also were tested, through joint work of archaeologists and non-archaeologists. That engaging interested public in archaeology can bring practical benefits, which can be essential, was demonstrated already in the early 20th century-excavations at Vinča, when funding for the research was secured thanks to non-archaeologists on the team. Over the years, this practice has underpinned the efforts aimed at preserving and communicating the Vinča heritage. It might also be a domain in which a joint effort towards the site protection is possible of the opposed specialist and non-specialist voices interpreting the archaeology of Vinča

From Co-design to convivial design: insights from engaging users in a participatory clothing design process

Research examines participatory design from the perspectives of clothing design, design activism and co-design through engaging users in a participatory clothing design process. Design for sustainability serves as a background paradigm and an ideological inspiration for this research. A questions of how to engage users in a clothing design process, is presented. What works, for whom and in what contexts is examined. Research is conducted as practice-based design research and a research strategy of applying multiple research methods of practice-based research, action research and realist evaluation is adopted. Through a literary review of the theoretical frameworks, a programme theory is constructed, illustrating preliminary understanding and serving as a model for the participatory design process. This programme theory is then followed up, tested and evaluated and revised in an abductive and cyclical design and research process. Multiple data collections methods are used as the research strategy allows and the researcher is taking many roles as a participant observer, researcher, designer and a facilitator. In addition to the continuous evaluation of the process, a thematic analysis is conducted to gain further insights. Data is analysed on three levels, tools and techniques, method and approaches. The multiple answers to the research questions present themselves during analysis. Main results are summarised and conclusions drawn through a concept of conviviality. To engage in any participatory activities, one needs to define the approach, context and the goal, engage the relevant people and find the suitable method, techniques and tools to reach that goal. Convivial engagement is informed, generative and scaffolding, disciplined, but creative. There is a sensitivity to levels of involvement and time invested. Building collective knowledge, practice and shared understanding is crucial.Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on tutkia keinoja osallistaa käyttäjiä vaatesuunnitteluprosessiin. Keinoja ja työkaluja siihen mikä toimii, kenelle ja missä kontekstissa, tarkastellaan vaatetussuunnittelun, muotoiluaktivismin ja osallistavan suunnittelun näkökulmista ja tutkimuksessa toteutetun osallistavan vaatesuunnitteluprosessin kautta. Kestävä suunnittelu toimii tutkimuksen ideologisena inspiraationa ja taustaviitekehyksenä. Tämä käytäntölähtöinen, työkaluja ja prosesseja tutkiva muotoilun tutkimus hyödyntää käytäntölähtöisen tutkimuksen, toimintatutkimuksen ja realistisen evaluaation yhdistävää tutkimusstrategiaa ja hyödyntää moninaisia aineistonkeruumenetelmiä. Kirjallisuuskatsauksen ja teoreettisten viitekehysten tarkastelun kautta on muodostettu esiymmärrys osallistamisen keinoista ja mallinnettu ohjelmateoria osallistavaa muotoiluprosessia varten. Ohjelmateoriaa testataan, arvioidaan ja uudelleensuunnataan toimintatutkimuksellisten syklien kautta. Teema-analyysin avulla aineistoa lopuksi tarkastellaan kolmella tasolla: työkalujen ja tekniikoiden tasolla, sekä menetelmien, että lähestymistapojen tasolla. Kolmen eri lähestymistavan synteesistä oivalluksena noussut hyväntahtoisen, tai konviviaali suunnittelu käsitteenä kokoaa tutkimuksen tärkeimpiä havaintoja. Yksittäisten työkalujen ja metodin toimivuus eri konteksteissa todetaan jo analyysin kautta. Lähestymistapa, konteksti ja päämärät tulee aina määritellä osallistavan prosessin aluksi, jotta tiedetään ketä osallistetaan, miksi, ja missä vaiheessa prosessia. Tästä johdetaan soveltuvat menetelmät ja tekniikat. Konviviaali suunnittelu on tietoista, generatiivista ja yhteistä tietoa rakentavaa. Se on järjestelmällistä, mutta soveltavaa ja luovuutta tukevaa. Hyväntahtoisesti osallistamisen tasoja ja aikaa huomioivaa. Yhteisten suunnittelun käytäntöjen ja ymmärryksen rakentaminen on keskeistä

Putting the Pieces Back Together: Using a Kintsugi-Influenced Directive to Promote Self-Forgiveness and Resiliency in Young Adults with Shame and Guilt

Kintsugi is the ancient Japanese art form of repairing broken pieces with lacquer. It is highly regarded as an art form that represents the beauty of scars and life after destruction. Currently, the field of art therapy has little literature on how destruction of art can be used in the field to aid clients. This study was dedicated to researching a new art directive based on the kintsugi form of art making and its philosophies. To assess the therapeutic value of the destruction of art, the chosen population was millennials, an age group that is misunderstood. This study aims to show that this directive can help this age group process through their shame and guilt, and in turn build resiliency and self-forgiveness. Participants engaged in a three-part art making process and eleven short interview questions focused on their experience. They were asked to create artwork, destroy it, and then use the pieces to either repair it or create something new. Qualitative data was analyzed to assess the experience of the participants. Overall, the results showed that this directive was effective in evoking feelings of resiliency and self-forgiveness. It is hoped that this study can further the conversation on using kintsugi and other types of destructive art in the field of art therapy

Architectural Intangible Heritage and Graphic Reconstruction. Terminological and Philological Notes

UNESCO’s extension of the concept of heritage to intangible has been changing the status of architectural designs and the operative frame of the practice of architectural reconstruction. The variety of reconstruction cases requires specific procedures and terms. The terms are here investigated by an analysis of the historical and theoretical roots of such a practice, focusing on the role of Quatremère de Quincy; the procedures are discussed by means of a series of personal experiences concerning with literary architecture, architectural projects, and fictive architecture. They are retrospectively analysed from the point of view of the sources – to define both the content and the appearance – which can be ‘endogenous’ to the document/monument (and priority) or ‘exogenous’, with a focus on the transparency of procedure