肘関節粘弾性特性分析に基づいた可変粘弾性握手マニピュレータの開発

【学位授与の要件】中央大学学位規則第4条第1項【論文審査委員主査】中村　太郎　（中央大学理工学部教授）【論文審査委員副査】平岡　弘之（中央大学理工学部教授）、新妻　実保子（中央大学理工学部准教授）、諸麥　俊司（中央大学理工学部准教授）、万　偉偉（大阪大学准教授）博士(工学)中央大

On the intrinsic control properties of muscle and relexes: exploring the interaction between neural and musculoskeletal dynamics in the framework of the equilbrium-point hypothesis

The aim of this thesis is to examine the relationship between the intrinsic dynamics of the body and its neural control. Specifically, it investigates the influence of musculoskeletal properties on the control signals needed for simple goal-directed movements in the framework of the equilibriumpoint (EP) hypothesis. To this end, muscle models of varying complexity are studied in isolation and when coupled to feedback laws derived from the EP hypothesis. It is demonstrated that the dynamical landscape formed by non-linear musculoskeletal models features a stable attractor in joint space whose properties, such as position, stiffness and viscosity, can be controlled through differential- and co-activation of antagonistic muscles. The emergence of this attractor creates a new level of control that reduces the system’s degrees of freedom and thus constitutes a low-level motor synergy. It is described how the properties of this stable equilibrium, as well as transient movement dynamics, depend on the various modelling assumptions underlying the muscle model. The EP hypothesis is then tested on a chosen musculoskeletal model by using an optimal feedback control approach: genetic algorithm optimisation is used to identify feedback gains that produce smooth single- and multijoint movements of varying amplitude and duration. The importance of different feedback components is studied for reproducing invariants observed in natural movement kinematics. The resulting controllers are demonstrated to cope with a plausible range of reflex delays, predict the use of velocity-error feedback for the fastest movements, and suggest that experimentally observed triphasic muscle bursts are an emergent feature rather than centrally planned. Also, control schemes which allow for simultaneous control of movement duration and distance are identified. Lastly, it is shown that the generic formulation of the EP hypothesis fails to account for the interaction torques arising in multijoint movements. Extensions are proposed which address this shortcoming while maintaining its two basic assumptions: control signals in positional rather than force-based frames of reference; and the primacy of control properties intrinsic to the body over internal models. It is concluded that the EP hypothesis cannot be rejected for single- or multijoint reaching movements based on claims that predicted movement kinematics are unrealistic

Hierarchical neural control of human postural balance and bipedal walking in sagittal plane

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2006.This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.Includes bibliographical references (p. 177-192).The cerebrocerebellar system has been known to be a central part in human motion control and execution. However, engineering descriptions of the system, especially in relation to lower body motion, have been very limited. This thesis proposes an integrated hierarchical neural model of sagittal planar human postural balance and biped walking to 1) investigate an explicit mechanism of the cerebrocerebellar and other related neural systems, 2) explain the principles of human postural balancing and biped walking control in terms of the central nervous systems, and 3) provide a biologically inspired framework for the design of humanoid or other biomorphic robot locomotion. The modeling was designed to confirm neurophysiological plausibility and achieve practical simplicity as well. The combination of scheduled long-loop proprioceptive and force feedback represents the cerebrocerebellar system to implement postural balance strategies despite the presence of signal transmission delays and phase lags. The model demonstrates that the postural control can be substantially linear within regions of the kinematic state-space with switching driven by sensed variables.(cont.) A improved and simplified version of the cerebrocerebellar system is combined with the spinal pattern generation to account for human nominal walking and various robustness tasks. The synergy organization of the spinal pattern generation simplifies control of joint actuation. The substantial decoupling of the various neural circuits facilitates generation of modulated behaviors. This thesis suggests that kinematic control with no explicit internal model of body dynamics may be sufficient for those lower body motion tasks and play a common role in postural balance and walking. All simulated performances are evaluated with respect to actual observations of kinematics, electromyogram, etc.by Sungho JoPh.D

Fast Sensing and Adaptive Actuation for Robust Legged Locomotion

Robust legged locomotion in complex terrain demands fast perturbation detection and reaction. In animals, due to the neural transmission delays, the high-level control loop involving the brain is absent from mitigating the initial disturbance. Instead, the low-level compliant behavior embedded in mechanics and the mid-level controllers in the spinal cord are believed to provide quick response during fast locomotion. Still, it remains unclear how these low- and mid-level components facilitate robust locomotion. This thesis aims to identify and characterize the underlining elements responsible for fast sensing and actuation. To test individual elements and their interplay, several robotic systems were implemented. The implementations include active and passive mechanisms as a combination of elasticities and dampers in multi-segment robot legs, central pattern generators inspired by intraspinal controllers, and a synthetic robotic version of an intraspinal sensor. The first contribution establishes the notion of effective damping. Effective damping is defined as the total energy dissipation during one step, which allows quantifying how much ground perturbation is mitigated. Using this framework, the optimal damper is identified as viscous and tunable. This study paves the way for integrating effective dampers to legged designs for robust locomotion. The second contribution introduces a novel series elastic actuation system. The proposed system tackles the issue of power transmission over multiple joints, while featuring intrinsic series elasticity. The design is tested on a hopper with two more elastic elements, demonstrating energy recuperation and enhanced dynamic performance. The third contribution proposes a novel tunable damper and reveals its influence on legged hopping. A bio-inspired slack tendon mechanism is implemented in parallel with a spring. The tunable damping is rigorously quantified on a central-pattern-generator-driven hopping robot, which reveals the trade-off between locomotion robustness and efficiency. The last contribution explores the intraspinal sensing hypothesis of birds. We speculate that the observed intraspinal structure functions as an accelerometer. This accelerometer could provide fast state feedback directly to the adjacent central pattern generator circuits, contributing to birds’ running robustness. A biophysical simulation framework is established, which provides new perspectives on the sensing mechanics of the system, including the influence of morphologies and material properties. Giving an overview of the hierarchical control architecture, this thesis investigates the fast sensing and actuation mechanisms in several control layers, including the low-level mechanical response and the mid-level intraspinal controllers. The contributions of this work provide new insight into animal loco-motion robustness and lays the foundation for future legged robot design

The Prediction of Nociceptive Neural Activity in Passive Tissues following Lumbar Spine Flexion

Low back pain is a costly and debilitating disorder; however, most cases are categorized as being non-specific: low back pain without an identifiable origin or cause. Non-specific low back pain can be broadly considered and treated as either musculoskeletal disorders or pain disorders. In the musculoskeletal case, mechanics and loading history are believed to disrupt or damage tissues in the low back, which then generate nociceptive signals to be interpreted as pain. If the low back pain is a pain disorder, the disruption or damage is not with the tissues of the lower back, but rather the nervous system that transmits or interprets these nociceptive signals. Additionally, these subcategories of non-specific low back pain are not wholly independent since mechanical exposures can influence nervous system activity and vice versa. A specific outcome of this interconnectedness between mechanics and neural encoding is that a mechanical exposure can alter our ability to detect mechanical loads or mechanical sensitivity. One mechanical exposure that is linked to low back pain development and has been documented to alter neural activity is lumbar spine flexion. The purpose of this thesis was to determine the extent and mechanisms underlying how lumbar spine flexion can alter lower back mechanical sensitivity through a combination of viscoelastic creep and muscle activity, and to determine the implications those changes could have on the development of low back pain. The methods undertaken to achieve this thesis’ purpose were a combination of in-vivo human laboratory experiments, ex-vivo benchtop histology and mechanical testing, and in-silico modelling across four studies. Studies 1 and 2 quantified how mechanical sensitivity was altered over time in response to static and repetitive lumbar spine flexion respectively, Study 3 quantified the innervation properties of lumbar spine tissues, and Study 4 simulated mechanical exposures before and after lumbar spine flexion exposures to determine the nociceptive neural activity those exposures and conditions could generate. The first two studies employed a similar design and methodology measuring mechanical sensitivity and biomechanical variables before and up to 40 minutes after a 10-minute lumbar spine flexion exposure. For Study 1, the exposure was a static, seated, maximal lumbar spine flexion exposure and for Study 2, the exposure was a repetitive, standing, maximal lumbar spine flexion exposure. A custom motorized pressure algometer was constructed for these studies and used to track three measures of mechanical sensitivity—pressure-pain threshold, stimulus intensity, and stimulus unpleasantness—in the lower back and tibial shaft. Accelerometry was used in both studies to track the development and recovery from viscoelastic creep through lumbar spine flexion range of motion, and surface electromyography was used to determine flexion-relaxation (mean amplitude) in Study 1, and muscle fatigue (mean power frequency) in Study 2. Isometric joint strength and ratings of perceived exertion were also measured in Study 2. These data were fed into two main statistical processes: the first aimed to determine the time-course of mechanical sensitivity changes in the lower back relative to the tibial control site, and the second was to determine if any of the biomechanical variables (creep, muscle use, strength) or tibial mechanical sensitivities could predict lower back mechanical sensitivity changes. The static exposure generated a 10.3% creep response (4.4 ± 2.7°) in flexion range of motion that lasted for at least 40 minutes after the exposure. This exposure caused a transient increase in lower back stimulus unpleasantness but otherwise did not affect mechanical sensitivity nor did it affect flexion-relaxation. The strongest predictor of lower back mechanical sensitivity throughout the static exposure was the tibial surrogate; however, the magnitude of creep was also a significant predictor of changes in lower back pressure-pain thresholds. Despite being significant, these significant predictors could not explain the majority to the variance in mechanical sensitivity, and these changes appear more related to emotional affect than a physiological response. Study 1 concluded that a static lumbar spine flexion exposure that did not incorporate muscle activity did not alter nociceptive activity but could shape how nociceptive activity is experienced. The repetitive exposure generated a 5.0% creep response (2.7 ± 1.4°) in flexion range of motion dissipated within 5 minutes of the exposure ending. This exposure caused an immediate and transient decrease in lumbar spine extensor mean power frequency (5.1%) and lower back joint strength (9.8%) indicative of muscle fatigue, and a delayed 13.6% increase in lower back pressure-pain thresholds occurring 10 minutes after the exposure ended. Like Study 1, tibial mechanical sensitivities were the strongest predictor of lower back mechanical sensitivities, however interaction terms between these tibial surrogates and either creep magnitude or fatigue indicators (mean power frequency and strength) were also significant predictors. The delayed desensitization following this repetitive exposure was believed to arise from a combination of creep development and muscle use. The third study used lumbar spine tissues harvested from four cadaveric donors to determine the relative concentration of four neural membrane molecules (Protein Gene Product 9.5 (PGP9.5), Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide, Bradykinin B1-Receptor, and Acid-Sensing Ion Channel 3 (ASIC3)) relevant to detecting mechanical stimuli in three tissues (dermal skin, superficial posterior annulus fibrosus, and the supraspinous-interspinous ligament complex) using Western Blotting. Only PGP9.5 and ASIC3 were found consistently in any of the three tissues. PGP9.5 had similar concentrations in skin and ligament, both of which were at least 12.8 times higher than in annular tissues. ASIC3 was most common in skin, followed by ligament, then annulus fibrosus, however the ratio of ASIC3:PGP9.5 was highest in annular tissue. The fourth study documents a model of nociceptive activity that predicts the likelihood that three exposures (pressure-pain threshold, flexion range of motion, and tissue failure) would generate nociceptive activity in the brainstem given a tissue (skin, annulus, or ligament), a viscoelastic state, ζ(t), and a muscle activity state, ϕ(t). The model simulated a single tissue-exposure combination for a sample of 100 mechanical sensitivities derived from the data in Studies 1 and 2. The model itself consisted of a Sensitivity Module that converted a tissue stress to an electrical current and a Neurological Module that used the electrical current to simulate the behaviour of a network of Hodgkin-Huxley neurons. The pressure-pain threshold exposure was used to validate the model and derive values for ζ(t) and ϕ(t), which were then applied to the other two exposures in annular and ligament tissues. While ζ(t), representing any effects related to creep following lumbar spine flexion, had minimal effects on nociceptive neural activity, ϕ(t), representing muscle activity-related effects of lumbar spine flexion, could inhibit nociceptive activity substantially. A major prediction from the model is that annulus fibrosus failure would be unlikely to generate any nociceptive activity in 12% of the population, and that characteristics of the exposure could increase that percentage to as many as 99.9% depending on the mode of failure. Flexion range of motion consistently generated no nociceptive activity in all tissues and conditions, and ligament failure consistently generated nociceptive activity regardless of other factors. While both viscoelastic creep and muscle activity related to lumbar spine flexion can influence mechanical sensitivity, the effects of muscle activity were more prominent, and could meaningfully influence the connection between tissue disruption and low back pain. These effects were most notable in exposures that have the potential to damage the annulus fibrosus

THE EFFECTS OF BODY SIZE ON SOFT-BODIED BURROWERS

Burrowing is a difficult form of locomotion due to the abrasive, heterogeneous, and dense nature of many substrates. Despite the challenges, many vertebrates and invertebrates spanning multitudes of taxa and body sizes burrow in a variety of terrestrial and aquatic substrates. Unlike terrestrial burrowers and modern digging equipment, many invertebrate burrowers lack rigid elements, and instead possess a fluid-filled hydrostatic skeleton. Soft-bodied burrowing invertebrates range in size from several hundred micrometers in length (e.g. nematodes) to several meters in length (e.g. earthworms), and burrow in environments ranging from muds to sands to soils. However, relatively little of the burrowing literature available has focused the effect of size on burrowing mechanics, and it is possible that the physical characteristics of soil may impose size-dependent constraints on burrowers. My research has found significant changes in morphology, soil stiffness, and burrowing behavior in Lumbricus terrestris earthworms during ontogeny. My results suggest that many aspects of the hydrostatic skeleton may change shape during growth to compensate for the ecological context of the organism. Specifically, I found that soil stiffness and resistance may become a significant challenge for soft-bodied burrowers as they increase in size, and must strain a greater volume of soil in order to form a burrow.Doctor of Philosoph

Wearable exoskeleton systems based-on pneumatic soft actuators and controlled by parallel processing

Human assistance innovation is essential in an increasingly aging society and one technology that may be applicable is exoskeletons. However, traditional rigid exoskeletons have many drawbacks. This research includes the design and implementation of upper-limb power assist and rehabilitation exoskeletons based on pneumatic soft actuators. A novel extensor-contractor pneumatic muscle has been designed and constructed. This new actuator has bidirectional action, allowing it to both extend and contract, as well as create force in both directions. A mathematical model has been developed for the new novel actuator which depicts the output force of the actuator. Another new design has been used to create a novel bending pneumatic muscle, based on an extending McKibben muscle and modelled mathematically according to its geometric parameters. This novel bending muscle design has been used to create two versions of power augmentation gloves. These exoskeletons are controlled by adaptive controllers using human intention. For finger rehabilitation a glove has been developed to bend the fingers (full bending) by using our novel bending muscles. Inspired by the zero position (straight fingers) problem for post-stroke patients, a new controllable stiffness bending actuator has been developed with a novel prototype. To control this new rehabilitation exoskeleton, online and offline controller systems have been designed for the hand exoskeleton and the results have been assessed experimentally. Another new design of variable stiffness actuator, which controls the bending segment, has been developed to create a new version of hand exoskeletons in order to achieve more rehabilitation movements in the same single glove. For Forearm rehabilitation, a rehabilitation exoskeleton has been developed for pronation and supination movements by using the novel extensor-contractor pneumatic muscle. For the Elbow rehabilitation an elbow rehabilitation exoskeleton was designed which relies on novel two-directional bending actuators with online and offline feedback controllers. Lastly for upper-limb joint is the wrist, we designed a novel all-directional bending actuator by using the moulding bladder to develop the wrist rehabilitation exoskeleton by a single all-directional bending muscle. Finally, a totally portable, power assistive and rehabilitative prototype has been developed using a parallel processing intelligent control chip

Robotics 2010

Without a doubt, robotics has made an incredible progress over the last decades. The vision of developing, designing and creating technical systems that help humans to achieve hard and complex tasks, has intelligently led to an incredible variety of solutions. There are barely technical fields that could exhibit more interdisciplinary interconnections like robotics. This fact is generated by highly complex challenges imposed by robotic systems, especially the requirement on intelligent and autonomous operation. This book tries to give an insight into the evolutionary process that takes place in robotics. It provides articles covering a wide range of this exciting area. The progress of technical challenges and concepts may illuminate the relationship between developments that seem to be completely different at first sight. The robotics remains an exciting scientific and engineering field. The community looks optimistically ahead and also looks forward for the future challenges and new development