About character education: should informal learning belong in schools?

Þessi grein varpar ljósi á siðferðis- og skapgerðarmenntun innan skóla og stöðu slíkrar menntunar á Íslandi. Margt bendir til þess að þó að fræðimenn hafi á síðustu árum varpað ljósi á mikilvægi þess að efla siðferðilega dómgreind nemenda, sem og félags- og tilfinningaþroska þeirra, verði sá þáttur skólastarfsins iðulega útundan. Innleiðingu á lífsleikni sem námsgrein í grunn- og framhaldsskóla má skoða sem einn þátt í þeirri viðleitni að efla siðferðismenntun og heildstæða sýn á þroska nemenda. Jafnframt hafa grunnskólar í auknum mæli tekið upp ýmis aga- og samskiptakerfi. Kennurum og fagfólki í skóla- og tómstundastarfi gefast víða dýrmæt tækifæri til að efla siðferðisvitund nemenda. Þá eru kennarar mikilvægar fyrirmyndir þegar kemur að því að leggja grunn að virðingu og umhyggju í skólastarfi. Í þessari grein mun ég færa rök fyrir því að til að skapa skilyrði fyrir siðferðis- og skapgerðarmenntun innan grunnskóla sé nauðsynlegt að beita hugmyndafræði óformlegs náms, ekki síður og ef til vill fremur en aðferðum formlegs náms.This article explores virtue and character education and the status of such education in Icelandic schools. In recent years, scholars have emphasized the importance of moral education of students, as well as their social and emotional learning. Moral education does not align with global concerns, core academic outcomes and efficiency in education. Thus, moral education is often marginalized in formal education. I argue that moral education calls for informal learning methods and the active participation of students. In this article, I draw from the writings of Kristján Kristjánsson, professor and deputy director of The Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues at Birmingham University. Kristjánsson has been one of the leading advocates of virtue ethics in the spirit of Artistotle. I also present some of the practical suggestions introduced in the book Teaching character and virtue in schools (2017) which is built on research at the Jubilee Centre. Virtue literacy involves knowledge and understanding of virtue terms as well as the ability to apply virtues to real-life contexts. A holistic approach in schools to virtue and character education calls for a clear policy on how teachers and school personnel work in various ways to support virtue and character education. The implementation of life skills as a subject in Icelandic elementary and high schools can be seen as a step towards strengthening moral education, but research indicates that life skills as a subject lacks a coherent structure and has become a venue for various educational programmes, such as financial literacy and career counselling. Moreover, Icelandic elementary schools have increasingly started to use various behavioural and social-skills models, for example PBS and ART, and other approaches, such as the Restitution Approach and Positive Discipline. Implementation of such models or approaches encourages teachers and school personnel to work collaboratively to support school morale and atmosphere. However, it does not ensure that reflective moral education takes place. The integration of character education into school subjects is an important way to explore ethical questions and create awareness of virtues in different contexts. Teachers can, for example, ask open-ended questions to encourage discussion of virtues such as social responsibility, honesty, respect and critical thinking in relation to science, history, literature, health and sports, to name but a few subjects. Teachers are important role models when it comes to developing respect and care in the classroom. I argue that in order for moral and character education to flourish, it is necessary to make significant use of the tools of informal learning and perhaps even more than methods of formal learning. Informal learning is built on experiential learning; that is, the notion that students build their knowledge on personal experience and reflections. Out-of school programmes, such as youth centres and leisure-time centres, offer a non-formal setting for children and young people to develop their character by taking part in various activities with their peers and personnel. I conclude that in order to strengthen virtue and character education in schools, an interdisciplinary approach is needed that involves increased collaboration between teachers and leisure-time pedagogues. Informal learning certainly takes place in schools; but knowledge on how to apply the tools of informal and experiential learning is needed, not least to strenghten character education.Peer Reviewe

Sérfræðingar í hjúkrun : skilgreining, viðurkenning og nám

Hægt er að lesa greinina í heild sinni með því að smella á hlekkinn View/OpenThis paper describes the roles of specialists in nursing, ways in which their services are certified and regulated and it also discusses the characteristics of the knowledge and education that specialists in nursing require. A comprehensive literature search led to a variety of sources from a number of European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and the Netherlands in addition to literature from North America. Important work on the clarification of specialists in nursing has also been done by International Counsil of Nurses and European Federation of Nurses Associations (EFN). Results showed that there is no current consensus on definitions, regulations, roles, education nor practice of nurse specialists between countries, neither in Europe nor in the Anglo-Saxon world. There are even large differences between regions and states of the same country. In comparison to the education of specialists in other practice oriented disciplines in Iceland, e.g. psychologists or physicians, more emphasis is placed on theoretical knowledge than on clinical experience in the education of nurse specialists in Iceland. Differences in traditions and positions with regard to preparing specialist nurses for practice are described and discussed. A number of suggestions are made regarding the development of specialist education in Iceland.Tilgangur þessarar greinar er að skýra hlutverk, starfssvið og þekkingu sérfræðinga í hjúkrun svo hægt sé að skipuleggja framhaldsnám í hjúkrunarfræði sem endurspeglar þær væntingar sem gerðar eru til þeirra. Gögnum um störf, viðurkenningu og menntun sérfræðinga í hjúkrun var safnað frá ýmsum löndum, auk upplýsinga um sérfræðinga í öðrum starfsgreinum hér á landi. Í þeim kemur fram að gerðar eru ólíkar kröfur um menntun og starfsreynslu sérfræðinga í hjúkrun eftir löndum og jafnvel svæðum innan landa og að ábyrgð og sjálfstæði sérfræðinga er mismikið. Borið saman við aðrar starfsstéttir er lögð mikil áhersla á fræðilega þekkingu í sérfræðinámi í hjúkrun en minni á klíníska starfsreynslu. Í greininni eru hinar ólíku hefðir og stefnur um störf og menntun sérfræðinga kynntar og ræddar og bent á atriði sem huga þarf að samfara fjölgun sérfræðinga og frekari menntun þeirra á Íslandi á komandi árum

“Then it is crucial to get some external person with respectability to the meetings”: Mothering practices and collaboration with teachers and professionals to secure their autistic children’s schooling and professional services – Bourdieusian class analysis

Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að skoða reynslu mæðra af samskiptum við kennara og annað fagfólk á menntavettvangi í ljósi ólíkrar stéttarstöðu. Meginefniviður rannsóknarinnar er sex hálfopin einstaklingsviðtöl við mæður grunnskólabarna á einhverfurófi og tvö upplýsingaviðtöl við sérfræðinga á vettvangi stjórnsýslu. Kenningarammi Bourdieu var nýttur til að greina hvernig bakgrunnur mæðranna, með áherslu á efnahags-, menningar- og félagsauð, markaði stöðu þeirra, samskipti og væntingar á vettvangi menntunar. Kerfisbundið aðgengi mæðranna að ráðgjöf og stuðningi varð minna, að eigin mati, eftir því sem barnið varð eldra, en þá fór auður þeirra og óformlegt aðgengi að skipta meira máli, og ljóst varð að mæður í millistétt stóðu þá betur að vígi. Félagsauður skipti sköpum og umbreytti stöðu móður í lægri stétt. Félagsauður barst í gegnum sterk fjölskyldutengsl, vinatengsl, tengsl við vinnufélaga og kunningja, og/eða tengsl við aðra foreldra með börn á einhverfurófi. Ólíkur menningarauður birtist í mismiklu a) sjálfsöryggi í samskiptum, b) þekkingu á leikreglum menntavettvangsins og c) virkni í samskiptum við kennara og sérfræðinga. Það er mat höfunda að nauðsynlegt sé að samhæfa betur kerfið milli skólastiga og tryggja að þar sé þekking á stéttamun og tekið sé tillit til hans. Víkka þarf út skilgreiningar á stéttarhugtakinu þannig að það nái einnig til félags- og menningarauðs og beita eigindlegri nálgun til að ná betur að greina ferli, bjargráð og aðgerðir sem ýta undir eða minnka stéttamun og birtingarmyndir hans í íslensku menntakerfi.In Iceland, social class is an understudied field of research in terms of social justice in education. The theoretical purpose of the research was to explore class disposition of mothers of children with learning disabilities in relation to their experience of schooling by using Pierre Bourdieu‘s theoretical framework. Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus, field and capital are used to explore how mothering practices and resources are shaped by their class position, as well as how the education field of compulsory schooling opens up possibilities to some while closing them to others. The practical purposes of this research were to explore parental experience of the school and professional services concerning the education of their autistic child, as well as communication with their child’s teachers and other professionals at school. This research is a pilot study in preparation for a more extensive research project on Parental practices, choices and responsibilities within the Icelandic education field, designed and led by the first author, financed by The University of Iceland Research Fund and the Icelandic Equality Fund. In this paper the theoretical and methodological framework of the project is introduced and used to analyse a small dataset, collected for the MA-thesis of the second author, comprising a total of eight semi-structured interviews. The main interviewees were six mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder, and supplementary interviews were taken with a project manager of inclusive education at the Reykjavík Municipality educational office and a worker from a grassroots consultancy centre (Icel. Sjónarhóll) for parents of children with special needs. This research is a pilot study in preparation for a more extensive research project on Parental practices, choices and responsibilities within the Icelandic education field, designed and led by the first author, financed by The University of Iceland Research Fund and the Icelandic Equality Fund. In this paper the theoretical and methodological framework of the project is introduced and used to analyse a small dataset, collected for the MA-thesis of the second author, comprising a total of eight semi-structured interviews. The main interviewees were six mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder, and supplementary interviews were taken with a project manager of inclusive education at the Reykjavík Municipality educational office and a worker from a grassroots consultancy centre (Icel. Sjónarhóll) for parents of children with special needs. The mothers who participated in the research belonged to two distinctive class groups in terms of education and occupation. Three counted as middle-class. They had tertiary education degrees, worked as professionals and were married to their children’s fathers who had a similar class position. The lower-class mothers had GCSE or A level equivalent education; two of them struggled with health issues and were not participating in the labour market. None of the three lived with the child´s father and he took no part in the upbringing of the child. Two of them were single mothers and one was co-habiting with a new partner. In a Bourdieusian class analysis the data indicated a clear division between the mothers in terms of economic, cultural and social capital. The SEN-industry in Iceland has intensified and in the compulsory schools access to resources is not guaranteed, resulting in growing insecurity among the mothers with regard to obtaining the services of a paraprofessional to conduct a personalized special-ed programme for their child. This was especially the case after they joined secondary school. Subsequently, parental class resources and capital turned out to be more important. Overall, the middle-class mothers exhibited more confidence in their communication with the school. However, the culture of intensive parenting is rather young in Icelandic education, so all of the mothers were quite afraid of being seen as too pushy and demanding for their children. One of the main contributions of this research is exhibited in the title of this paper. The title is a quote from a middle-class mother, who felt strongly about the importance of having someone with respectability alongside her in the school- and at professional-meetings, in order to obtain needed services and interventions for her child. The middle-class mothers perceived that acquaintance with people who had high enough symbolic capital was helpful in moving things forward for their child. One of the lower-class mothers boosted her social capital by starting to work in her children’s school which gave her invaluable insight into the rules of the game in the field of education and had ground-breaking effects for her child. However, such knowledge and overview was easily accessible to the middle class mothers as they enjoyed more valuable connections through relatives, friends, acquaintances and parent associations.Peer Reviewe

In search for explanatory factors in the relationship between educational level and mortality

Neðst á síðunni er hægt að nálgast greinina í heild sinni með því að smella á hlekkinn View/OpenObjective: The connection between socioeconomic status and mortality is well known in Western countries. Educational level has frequently been used as a socioeconomic indicator. In a recent Icelandic prospective study, an inverse relationship between educational level and mortality was shown. The objective of the present study is to consider possible explanatory factors. Material and methods: This study was a part of the Reykjavík Study. A stratified sample of 400 people was taken from one of six study groups. The sample was equally divided between the sexes and four educational levels. Mean age of the sample was 72.7 years. Participants completed a questionnaire concerning knowledge of risk factors for coronary heart disease, expected response to symptoms of cardiac infarction, social network and use of health care. Response rate was 78.5%. The relationship between answers and educational level was assessed with logistic regression. Results: People with higher education were more likely to be in personal contact with nurses and doctors and receive advice concerning health and treatment from them. Participants were generally satisfied with the Icelandic health care system and seemed generally to have good access to it. A relationship with educational level was not shown. A larger proportion of those with lower education had regular communication with their general practician. Conclusions: Our results suggest that certain health care services are integrated into the social network of those with higher education. This may lower their morbidity and mortality. Other hypotheses concerning possible explanatory factors for differences in health were not supported.Tilgangur: Sambandið milli þjóðfélagsstöðu og dánartíðni er vel þekkt á Vesturlöndum. Í rannsóknum síðari ára hefur menntun oft verið notuð sem mælikvarði á þjóðfélagsstöðu. Í nýlegri íslenskri framskyggnri rannsókn var sýnt fram á öfugt samband menntunar og dánartíðni. Tilgangur eftirfarandi rannsóknar var að kanna mögulega skýringarþætti þess. Efniviður og aðferðir: Rannsókn þessi var hluti af hóprannsókn Hjartaverndar. Tekið var 400 manna lagskipt úrtak úr einum sex rannsóknarhópa. Úrtakið skiptist jafnt milli kynja og fjögurra menntahópa. Meðalaldur úrtaks var 72,7 ár. Þátttakendur svöruðu spurningalista sem sneri að þekkingu á áhættuþáttum kransæðasjúkdóma, væntanlegum viðbrögðum við einkennum hjartadreps, félagslegum tengslum og samskiptum við heilbrigðiskerfið. Svarhlutfall var 78,5%. Fundið var hvort samband væri á milli menntunar og svara með línulegri aðhvarfsgreiningu (logistic regression). Niðurstöður: Ekki fannst marktækt samband milli menntunar og þekkingar á eigin áhættuþáttum kransæðasjúkdóma (blóðþrýstingur, blóðfitur, líkamsþyngd) eða væntanlegra viðbragða við einkennum hjartadreps. Meira menntaðir voru líklegri til að þekkja heilbrigðisstarfsfólk persónulega og njóta ráðlegginga þess varðandi heilsufar og meðferð sjúkdóma. Ánægja þátttakenda með heilbrigðisþjónustuna var almennt mikil og aðgengi að henni virtist lítt takmarkað en ekki var sýnt fram á samband við menntun hvað þetta varðar. Stærra hlutfall minna menntaðra átti regluleg samskipti við heimilislækni. Fleirum meðal minna menntaðra þótti heilbrigðiskerfið óaðgengilegt. Ályktun: Niðurstöður okkar vekja þá spurningu hvort viss heilbrigðisþjónusta sé innbyggð í félagsleg tengsl meira menntaðra og stuðli að betri heilsu þeirra. Aðrar tilgátur um hugsanlega skýringarþætti voru ekki studdar

Smoking, obesity and education of Icelandic women by rural-urban residence

Neðst á síðunni er hægt að nálgast greinina í heild sinni með því að smella á hlekkinn Skoða/Opna(view/open)OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of obesity and the association with smoking and education among young Icelandic women residing within and outside the capital area. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire was sent to 28.000 Icelandic women, 18-45 years-old, in the period November 2004 to June 2005. The sample was randomly selected from The National Registry, response rate being 54.6%. The study was part of a large Nordic population-based cross-sectional study. Logistic regression was used for assessing the odds ratio of obesity (BMI > or = 30) in a multivariate analysis according to smoking and education, taking also into account age and alcohol consumption. The chi-square test was used for comparing percentages. RESULTS: Thirteen percent of women residing in the capital area were obese compared with 21% outside the capital. In the multivariate analysis obesity was increased among women living outside the capital (OR = 1.66; 95% CI 1,50-1,83), among smokers (OR=1,13; 95% CI 1.01-1.28), and among women who did not have university education (OR=1.53; 95%CI 1.36-1.71). Daily smokers within the capital area were more likely to be obese (OR=1.27; 95%CI 1.07-1.49) but not smokers outside the capital (OR=1.0). . CONCLUSIONS: Residence outside the capital area, daily smoking and non-university education are associated with an increased risk of obesity among young Icelandic women. The relationship between these factors is complex and differs between women residing within and outside the capital area.Tilgangur: Að kanna algengi offitu og tengsl hennar við reykingar og menntun meðal ungra kvenna innan og utan höfuðborgarsvæðisins. Efniviður og aðferðir: Spurningalisti var sendur til 28.000 íslenskra kvenna, 18-45 ára, frá nóvember 2004 til júní 2005. Lagskipt slembiúrtak var fengið úr Þjóðskrá, heildarsvörun var 54,6%. Könnunin er hluti af stórri, norrænni lýðgrundaðri þversniðsrannsókn. Beitt var lógistískri aðhvarfsgreiningu og reiknað gagnlíkindahlutfall (OR) fyrir offitu (BMI³30) og 95% öryggisbil (CI) þar sem tekið var tillit til búsetu, menntunar, aldurs, reykinga og áfengisneyslu. Notað var kí-kvaðratspróf til að bera saman hlutföll. Niðurstöður: 13% kvenna af höfuðborgarsvæðinu flokkuðust með offitu borið saman við 21% utan svæðisins. Fjölbreytugreining sýndi að líkur á offitu voru marktækt hærri meðal kvenna utan en innan höfuðborgarsvæðis (OR=1,66; 95% CI 1,50-1,83), meðal reykingakvenna (OR=1,13; 95% CI 1,01-1,28) og þeirra sem ekki voru með háskólamenntun (OR=1,53; 95% CI 1,36-1,71). Á höfuðborgarsvæðinu voru auknar líkur á offitu meðal kvenna sem reyktu daglega (OR=1,27; 95% CI 1,07-1,49), en ekki utan höfuðborgarsvæðis (OR=1,0). Ályktanir: Búseta utan höfuðborgarsvæðis, dag- legar reykingar og minni menntun tengjast auknum líkum á offitu meðal kvenna á Íslandi. Samspil þessara þátta er flókið og ólíkt eftir búsetu

Democracy, care and competences in National Curriculum Guidelines for Preschools

Í rannsókninni sem kynnt er í þessari grein er sjónum beint að þeim gildum og því gildismati sem fram kemur í stefnu leikskóla á Íslandi. Gildin lýðræði, umhyggja og hæfni voru einkum til skoðunar og voru þau valin þar sem þau mynda rauðan þráð í Norrænum leikskólanámskrám. Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að öðlast skilning á þeim gildum sem sett eru fram í Aðalnámskrá leikskóla (2011) og starfsfólki íslenskra leikskóla er ætlað að miðla til leikskólabarna. Rannsóknin er hluti af norrænu rannsóknarverkefni, Values education in Nordic preschools: Basis of education for tomorrow, sem styrkt var af NordForsk. Verkefnið hafði það að markmiði að rannsaka þau gildi sem norrænir leikskólar byggja starf sitt á og skoða og greina hvernig þeim gildum er miðlað til leikskólabarna. Í þeim hluta rannsóknarinnar sem hér er kynnt var þemagreining notuð til að leita uppi og greina mynstur í námskránni og málfarsleg greining var jafnframt gerð á textanum. Niðurstöðurnar varpa ljósi á það hvernig gildin lýðræði, umhyggja og hæfni birtast í aðalnámskránni.In the study presented in this article, the focus is on the values identified in Icelandic preschool policy. The aim of the study is to explore how the Icelandic national curriculum guidelines for preschools frame values education and how Icelandic preschool educators are expected to communicate them to preschool children (Aðalnámskrá leikskóla, 2011). A particular focus is placed on the values of democracy, caring, and competence. These values were chosen because they have been found to form a leitmotif running throughout Nordic curricula for preschools (Einarsdottir, Puroila, Johansson, Broström, & Emilson, 2015). The following research questions guided the study: • What does the national curriculum say about participation and responsibilities of children in the preschool community? • How is the concept of care presented in the national curriculum? • What competencies does the national curriculum emphasize? The study is part of a larger Nordic project, Values education in Nordic preschools: Basis of education for tomorrow, the aim of which is to explore values education from various perspectives, including policy levels, institutional levels, and personal levels. Values are defined as principles that guide human actions and by which actions are judged to be good or desirable (Halsted & Taylor, 2010). Values education as a concept refers to educational practices through which children are assumed to learn societal values, as well as the norms and skills grounded in those values (Halstead & Taylor, 2000; Thornberg, 2008). The Nordic study applied Habermas’s (1987 theoretical ideas of communicative actions, the life-world, and the system. While the life-world is related to an inside perspective; that is, the participant’s point of view, the system relates to an outside perspective; that is, the spectator’s point of view. Here, the focus is on the system level, namely, the values embedded in Icelandic national curriculum guidelines for preschools. Thematic research analysis described by Braun and Clarke (2006) inspired the analysis of the curriculum guide. Thematic analysis is characterized by flexibility and involves searching across a data set to identify, analyze, and report patterns. A theme captures important aspects of the data in relation to the research questions and represents some level of meaning within the data set. An inductive analysis was also performed; that is, the themes identified were strongly linked to the data and the coding. In addition to a thematic analysis of the documents, a language-based approach was applied to the study. Key words related to democratic, caring, and competence values were selected, counted and categorized. The findings of the study provide knowledge about the values of democracy, caring, and competency in the Icelandic national curriculum guidelines for preschools. The findings shed light on how these values are presented in the curriculum and reveal different dimensions and meanings of the three value fields. Democracy is a prominent value in the document. Emphasis is placed on the importance of children not only learning about democracy but also having opportunities to understand and exercise democracy in the preschool setting. Democratic values are, on the one hand, pointed toward the individual and, on the other hand, toward the group. Care is widely discussed in the document and presented both as the fulfillment of basic needs and as an ethical relationship. Emphasis is placed on children learning to show other children respect and empathy as well as their right to experience sympathy and support from others. Concepts connected to competence values are highly prioritized in the curriculum. The competence values concern both a “how” aspect and a “what” aspect of children’s learning and development; that is, what children should learn and the methods the preschools should use to support their learning. Competence values concern both sociality and academic skills. Social competence is in the forefront in the curriculum and means interacting with other people, participating in society, and understanding social circumstances. Socio-emotional factors related to the individual, such as the development of self-esteem, self-image, and self-confidence, are also mentioned. Learning areas or content areas of the preschool curriculum are described in the curricular texts, and emphasis is placed on their integration and on meeting the interests of individual children.Peer Reviewe

Teacher students’ views towards teaching subjects through teamwork during a project based internship

Í greininni er fjallað almennt um vettvangsnám og hvernig það er skipulagt og framkvæmt í námskeiðinu Faggreinakennsla á Menntavísindasviði Háskóla Íslands. Rannsakað var viðhorf kennaranema í grunnskólakennarafræði og mat þeirra á vettvangsnáminu. Einnig er gerð grein fyrir mismunandi viðhorfum fræðimanna til vettvangsnáms, vægi kennslufræða og faggreina og ekki síst eðli og formi þessa brýna en vandasama hluta kennaranáms. Verkefni og ritgerðir nema í námskeiðinu á árunum 2013–2015 voru greindar og niðurstöður skoðaðar í ljósi hugmynda og markmiða kennara námskeiðsins. Helstu niðurstöður um viðhorf nema eru þær að þeim finnst mjög áhugavert að vinna í teymi í vettvangsnáminu því þannig læri þeir mismunandi kennsluaðferðir og það hjálpi þeim að sjá eigin kennslu í nýju ljósi. Nemum finnst einnig gagnlegt að kynnast mismunandi hugsunarhætti og nálgun í faggreinum. Í námskeiðinu virðast þeir líta á vettvangsnámið sem samstarf sitt og kennara í grunnskóla. Einnig kemur fram að teymisvinna hvetji nema til að samþætta tvö eða fleiri viðfangsefni í kennslu og að þeir ræði um skólastarf og skólamenningu vettvangsskólans. Í umræðum eru niðurstöður ræddar í fræðilegu ljósi og bent á hvað hugsanlega mætti betur fara. Höfundar leggja áherslu á að niðurstöður þessarar rannsóknar á teymisvinnu benda til þess að huga mætti oftar að teymisvinnu þar sem hún á við í vettvangsnámi en hingað til. Enn fremur þarf að auka samstarf Menntavísindasviðs og vettvangsskóla.The purpose of this study is to examine how students react to and assess taking part in teamwork during a project based internship. The authors first discuss the term internship, different definitions of the concept, and how it is related to teacher education. Kemnis and Smith (2007) refer to internship as a situated practice where students take part in a certain ethical act that is promissory in terms of respecting specific work and professional traditions. That is the reason why terms such as values, expectations and ideas are important components when talking about internships. During internship students gain practical knowledge that they, together with their theoretical knowledge, can use to shape their own professional views and understanding of teaching. Furthermore, the gap between theoretical and practical knowledge is discussed. Some scholars (e.g., Muchinsky, 2001) suggest that neither theories nor research results tell us exactly what to do in a practical context. Scholars with this point of view often put forward an assertion that there is no relation between theoretical and practical knowledge. Teaching is understood as a question of practice built on common sense and experience. This point of view is also widely known among many teachers who fail to see the connection between theory and practice. Other scholars (e.g., Korthagen et al., 2001, and Ragnhildur Bjarnadóttir, 2015) understand internships as a form of practice where students acquire procedural knowledge built on a dynamic relationship between practical and theoretical knowledge. In this article the term internship is understood as a learning process where students are given the opportunity to combine theory and practical experience with the purpose of becoming reflective professionals. In 2008, teacher education in Iceland changed from requiring a B.Ed. to an obligatory M.Ed. degree. In other words, the schooling for teachers was extended from three to five years. This is regarded as a major change and has partly resulted in a new structure for teacher education. One of the main changes is that more weight has been given to internships and school−based training. During the last two years of the M.Ed., the students take two courses emphasizing school−based training. In this study the authors examine how students react to the course „Faggreinakennsla”. The purpose of the course is to let the students reflect on how to teach subjects in compulsory schools. The course has been taught from 2013 and requires that students spend four weeks in schools as part of their internships. Students are required to work in teams with other students while interning. Normally, a team consists of 5 – 8 students majoring in different subjects, and the team members work in the same school during their internship. During their work in the field, each team jointly finds an issue or topic of special interest relating to school work. The chosen topic is then covered and discussed in a final presentation and dissertation of the course. The researchers analysed the students’ writings about their experiences and practices during internship. The analysed material covers the period from 2013 to 2015. The research methods are text and discourse analyses. The main results indicate that the students find it highly interesting to work in teams during the internship because they learn about and see teaching methods used in different subgjects, which helps them to put their own teaching into perspective. Also, students seem to think of the internship in terms of collaboration with their supervising teachers as well as their fellow students. Furthermore, the students come to a better understanding of how and when it is possible to integrate two or more subjects in their teaching. The research provides a deeper understanding of how teamwork during internships can help students acquire a much better understanding of their teaching practice. The research also reveals that project-based work on a chosen topic or matter related to schoolwork makes it more apparent to the students how theoretical and practical knowledge can be integrated in the learning process. In that way, students seem to have a better opportunity to examine, discuss and reflect on the act of teaching from different points of view. The research, therefore, contributes significant knowledge on how teacher students reconcile theoretical and practical aspects as important elements of the internship.Peer Reviewe

Polish and Icelandic vocabulary of Polish preschool children in Iceland: characteristics of the preschool and home language environment of bilingual children

Máltaka tvítyngdra barna dreifist á tvö tungumál og það hversu hratt og vel þau ná tökum á málunum er meðal annars háð því ílagi sem þau fá í hvoru tungumáli fyrir sig. Rannsóknir á orðaforða tvítyngdra barna sem alast upp á Íslandi sýna að íslenskur orðaforði þeirra er mun minni en orðaforði eintyngdra jafnaldra þeirra, en minna er vitað um stöðu þeirra í sínu móðurmáli. Viðfangsefni þessarar rannsóknar var að kanna pólskan og íslenskan orðaforða tvítyngdra barna og skoða hvernig málumhverfi barnanna heima og í leikskóla styður máltöku beggja málanna. Þátttakendur voru fjórtán börn á aldrinum 4–6 ára sem eiga pólska foreldra en hafa alist upp á Íslandi frá fæðingu eða frumbernsku. Orðaforði barnanna var metinn með íslensku og pólsku orðaforðaprófi, foreldrar þeirra svöruðu spurningalista um málumhverfi heima fyrir og tekin voru viðtöl við deildarstjóra í leikskólum barnanna. Meginniðurstöður voru þær að pólskur orðaforði flestra barnanna var innan viðmiðunarmarka fyrir eintyngd pólsk börn. Íslenskur orðaforði þeirra var hins vegar mun slakari en orðaforði eintyngdra íslenskra barna á sama aldri. Niðurstöður úr spurningakönnuninni sýndu að fyrir tveggja ára aldur höfðu öll börnin fyrst og fremst heyrt pólsku dagsdaglega en lítil kynni haft af íslensku. Foreldrar barnanna voru meðvitaðir um mikilvægi þess að börnin þeirra lærðu pólsku og hlúðu vel að máltöku hennar. Í leikskólunum var hins vegar lagt mest upp úr því að kenna börnunum íslensku en minni áhersla lögð á að styrkja pólskukunnáttu þeirra. Málörvun í leikskólunum fór mest fram í gegnum daglegt starf; leik, samræður, söng og lestur. Deildarstjórar töldu að flest þessara barna þyrftu á frekari málörvun að halda til að ná góðum tökum á íslensku og mörg þeirra fengu sérkennslu í einhverju formi. Í viðtölum við deildarstjóra kom hins vegar fram að þeir töldu ekki nóg að gert og kölluðu eftir auknum tíma til að sinna þessum þætti, sem og fræðslu og stuðningi við leikskólakennara.Bilingual language acquisition is a broad field and subject to many influencing factors. The rate and success of acquisition of two languages varies greatly with regard to the amount and type of input children receive in each language. Research studies on vocabulary knowledge of bilingual children in Iceland have shown that the Icelandic vocabulary of children of immigrant background is considerably smaller than that of their monolingual peers. However, less is known about their vocabulary knowledge in their mother tongue. The main aim of this study was to test the Polish and Icelandic vocabulary of bilingual children to assess their development in the two languages. In addition, the effect of the home and preschool language environment on children’s vocabulary development was investigated. The study was conducted in the autumn of 2014. The participants were 14 children, 4–6 years old (born 2009–2010), who were born in Iceland and whose parents’ native language was Polish. The children were chosen from six preschools located in southwest Iceland, outside Reykjavík. Six of the participants attended one preschool, the remaining eight were distributed between five preschools. Two vocabulary measurements were used in the study: an Icelandic version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-4) which has been translated/adapted and norm-referenced for four to eight-year-old Icelandic children and a standardized Polish vocabulary test, the Picture Vocabulary Test – Comprehension (OTSR) designed for use with children aged 2 to 6 years. A detailed questionnaire in Polish was given to the children’s parents to investigate the home language environment of the bilingual children. In addition, interviews were conducted with the heads of the eight preschool departments (in six preschools) attended by the participating children. The main results of the vocabulary tests showed that the receptive vocabulary in Polish of the majority of the children was similar in size to that of Polish monolingual children of the same age and gender. On the other hand, the size of their receptive vocabulary in Icelandic was found to be below the average for Icelandic monolingual children. The results suggest that although the participating children have lived in Iceland since infancy, their Icelandic vocabulary is weak. The main findings from the parent questionnaire showed that Polish was the primary language heard daily by all the children during the first two years of life and continued to be the main language used by the children for communication with parents, siblings and other adults. According to the department heads, the main emphasis of the preschool was to assist the bilingual children in learning Icelandic; learning the mother tongue was seen to be the responsibility of the parents. Similar language development practices were used in all the preschools. Language development was intertwined with daily activities and with pull-out lessons for literacy development. The main areas of emphasis mentioned by the department heads were reading to children and discussing the stories with them. The Text Talk method (Orðaspjall) was also used for vocabulary development. In four of the preschools the participating children received special lessons with emphasis on Icelandic vocabulary development. Parents of the bilingual children were generally happy with their cooperation with the preschools. The parents wanted to have positive relations and good communication with preschool staff, but sometimes they felt that communication was hampered by language difficulties. Likewise, the teachers experienced difficulties maintaining open and full communication with parents. They occasionally used interpreters for parent-teacher meetings, but this was not always possible. Finally, teachers used informal methods to assess the bilingual children’s language abilities and many felt the need for a vocabulary assessment tool which would assist teachers in addressing the vocabulary development needs of bilingual children at preschool. The department heads called for more support and training for staff in effective methods of language teaching in order to better meet the needs of the growing number of bilingual children in Icelandic preschools.Peer Reviewe

Ethical concerns in qualitative research

Í þessari grein fæst ég við þrjár meginspurningar. Í fyrsta lagi: Hvernig birtast siðferðileg álitamál í eigindlegum rannsóknum? Í öðru lagi: Eru þau að einhverju leyti frábrugðin siðferðilegum álitamálum við íhlutunarrannsóknir í læknisfræði? Og í þriðja lagi: Getur núverandi regluverk í siðfræði rannsókna á Íslandi gilt um allar eigindlegar rannsóknir á fólki? Í íslenskri löggjöf er einungis gert ráð fyrir að rannsóknaráætlanir á heilbrigðissviði skuli metnar af siðanefnd áður en þeim er hrint í framkvæmd. Þær reglur sem siðanefndir vinna eftir við siðferðilegt mat slíkra áætlana hafa einkum þróast sem andsvar við þeirri áhættu sem þátttakandi getur verið útsettur fyrir í íhlutunarrannsóknum innan læknisfræði. Í greininni lýsi ég þeim siðferðilegu álitamálum sem vakna í eigindlegum rannsóknum og nefni dæmi um hvernig þau geta skorið sig frá þeim álitamálum sem glíma þarf við þegar til dæmis eru gerðar lyfjarannsóknir eða aðrar íhlutunarrannsóknir á fólki innan heilbrigðisvísinda. Með því að draga fram þann mun, sem er á þessum tveimur rannsóknaraðferðum, vakna alvarlegar efasemdir um að núverandi vinnureglur um siðfræði rannsókna á fólki geti þjónað ákveðnum tegundum eigindlegra rannsókna sem skildi.My experience in reviewing and participating in social science research projects and being a member of various institutional review boards (IRBs) in the health sciences has alerted me to the fact that the current framework for research ethics in Iceland may not be sensitive enough to the special moral issues that arise in the social sciences. The type of research that particularly concerns me is qualitative research. I refer in this article to examples from children’s research and disability research and to methodologies like inclusive research, life history research and action research. Such research is often based on close collaboration between the researcher and the participant. I believe that the relationship that develops in these kinds of research studies may be of an ethically different kind than that which develops between a researcher and participant in, for instance, drug trials in the health sciences. In Iceland, the current ethical framework and regulations regarding research on human subjects is mainly based on the latter model of researcher/participant relationship. I therefore wonder whether there is not a real danger that the ethical issues linked with the use of qualitative methods will be overlooked or not responded to in the right manner. In this article, I address three main questions: First, what types of ethical concerns do arise in qualitative research? Second, are these ethical concerns different from ethical issues that arise in intervention studies, such as clinical trials in medicine? And third, could existing regulation in research ethics in Iceland serve adequately all types of qualitative research on human subjects? To approach these questions, I begin by outlining the historical roots and main principles in research ethics. I briefly describe the international agreements and laws which the Icelandic Bioethics committee – the only IRB in Iceland based in Icelandic law – draws on in its work. To analyze whether these regulations are likely to be helpful and sufficient when reviewing research on humans in social sciences, I look especially into the nature of the relationship between researchers and participants in different research traditions. My suggestion is that the nature of these relationships and different research aims can impact the ethical issues that may arise during the course of the research. Hence, I compare two types of methodology in research: first, medical research, e.g. pharmacological clinical trials, and second, qualitative research, and I analyze the difference of the relationships in these research traditions. I further look specifically into the primary ethical concerns and nuances of qualitative research. To do so, I concentrate on issues regarding both the balance between responsibility and duties, as well as on the aim of the research. I analyze these issues by looking especially at protection of the participant, the relationship between the researcher and the participant and the tension between social justice and the methodological validity of the research. In evaluating these issues, I refer to basic ethical values in science: autonomy and respect for the participant, welfare of participants and society as well as justice and true or valid knowledge. This gives rise to ethical questions that are in many ways different from those asked within traditional research on human subjects in medicine. My conclusion is that these questions have not been addressed properly in the current regulations governing research ethics.Ritrýnd greinPeer Reviewe

How is education on gender equality implemented in schools?: a study of the attitudes, knowledge and interests of school leaders in pre-, primary and upper secondary schools.

Hér er greint frá niðurstöðum spurningakönnunar á viðhorfum, þekkingu og áhuga skólastjóra í leik-, grunn-, og framhaldsskólum á kynjajafnrétti og fræðslu á því sviði. Sambærileg rannsókn meðal skólastjóra hefur ekki verið gerð. Spurningalisti var sendur rafrænt til allra skólastjóra leikskóla (n=78) og grunnskóla (n=43) í Reykjavík og til allra skólameistara (n=14) á höfuðborgarsvæðinu í janúar 2016. Svarhlutfall var 68%, eða 92 af þeim 135 sem svöruðu, en allmargir slepptu mörgum spurningum, m.a. bakgrunnsspurningum. Fimmtíu og níu þátttakendur svöruðu til um kyn. Af þeim voru 14 karlar og 45 konur. Fram kom mikill áhugi eða ákall mikils meirihluta skólastjóranna sem svara (86%) um aukna kynjajafnréttisfræðslu inn í skólana, fyrir nemendur, kennara og stjórnendur. Rúmlega helmingur skólastjóranna aðhyllist almennt það sjónarmið að það sé munur á kynjunum sem námsmönnum. Flestir telja muninn menningarbundinn en minni hópur (12%) telur að um eðlismun sé að ræða. Niðurstöðurnar sýna að tekið er á jafnréttismálum á ýmsan hátt í skólunum, að mati skólastjóra, bæði meðal nemenda og kennara. Flestir skólastjóranna nefna að algengast sé að fjalla um jafnréttismál í lífsleiknikennslu og samfélagsgreinum en einnig í samverustundum og daglegu samtali við nemendur. Af svörum skólastjóranna verður þó lítið ráðið um það hvert umfang þessara aðgerða er eða hversu markvissar þær eru enda telja þeir sjálfir að margt megi bæta á þessu sviði. Höfundar telja að þótt þekking skólastjóra á kynjafræðilegum grunnhugtökum sé að sumu leyti góð, þá sé ástæða til að óttast að hún sé ekki nægjanleg til að hreyfa við staðalmyndum kynjanna. Hverjar sem ástæðurnar eru er ljóst að skólastjórar á öllum skólastigum eru mjög áhugasamir um að fá fræðslu um kynjajafnrétti inn í skólana, með áherslu á að breyta hefðbundnum staðalmyndum og vinna gegn kynferðislegri áreitni, m.a. á samfélagsmiðlum. Mikilvægt er að fylgja þeim áhuga eftir.This article reports on a research project by The Centre for Research on Equality, Gender and Education, at the University of Iceland, examining the attitudes, knowledge and interests of principals at three school levels concerning gender equality. Since 2008 equality issues have, by law, been a new subject of study in primary schools, and an optional subject in upper secondary schools. Moreover, since 2011 equality has been one of six pillars of education in the national curriculum guide for all school levels. This study is the third part of the Centre´s research investigating practices and resistances towards gender equality in teacher education and in schools. This study is among the first focusing on school leaders and gender equality issues in Iceland and possibly worldwide. The aim of this research was to investigate how gender issues are being dealt with in schools, as described by school leaders and to learn about their attitudes, knowledge and interest, regarding gender equality issues. An online questionnaire was sent to all leaders of pre-schools (N=78) and primary schools (N=43) in Reykjavik, Iceland and to all school leaders of upper secondary schools in the Reykjavik metropolitan area (N=14). The formal response rate was 68%, or 92 of 135 responded, but many questions were not answered including background questions which made detailed analysis difficult. The findings suggest that gender equality is being dealt with in various ways in schools according to the school leaders, both among teachers and pupils. Equality weeks, equality days or formal equality plans are mentioned as well as lectures and developmental projects. Equality issues are not a special subject yet in primary schools, but are integrated into other subjects. It is, however, not clear how effective these measures are. Research suggests that while little is done in this field, other issues related to neo-liberalism are prioritized. Findings on attitudes to gender differences in students’ interests and choices indicate that slightly more than half of the school leaders believe such gender differences exist, but only a small group of school leaders (12%) endorse essentialism. The remainder endorse social constructivism, which is in agreement with their hope and belief that change is possible. Fortunately the essentialists are a much smaller group than we found in earlier research among teacher education students (50%). Nevertheless, the gender issues these two groups see as most important are the same; that is, changing gender stereotypes, fighting gender violence, and gender related bullying or harassment on social media. Even if the principals believe they have sound knowledge of some gender related concepts like equality (100%) and masculinity (93%), there is reason to fear that their knowledge of other equality-related concepts is not good enough to change gender stereotypes. The concept gender is considered well known by 50% of those that answered, essentialism by 47%, and gender system by only 28%. The definitions given by the principals suggest that the proportion of those who know the concepts well is even lower. Moreover, among principals, findings show considerable interest in, or even insistence upon, increased education relating to gender issues in schools. In particular they are interested in changing gender stereotypes and responding to young people’s complaints about sexual harassment, especially in social media. Thee school leaders are interested in the use of a Nordic website on gender issues in education; 68% say they will use it monthly or more often and only 5% state that they are not interested. Despite avowed interest in increasing gender education in schools and changing traditional gender stereotypes, as well as demonstrating a formally acceptable response rate, school leaders received the questionnaire with reluctance, and did not show interest in focus group interviews. This gives rise to various questions: Are the school leaders possibly preoccupied with bureaucratic chores because of the impact of NPM (New Public Management) at the expense of the core activities of teaching and learning? Or is it conceivable that tasks, such as equality issues, are met with more resistance than others? We found no evidence that school leaders are ambivalent towards changing traditional gender roles, despite the inherent risks that students who oppose them might face harassment or mobbing by their peers. This is not surprising, giving the fact that the Icelandic society has been evaluated as number one on gender equality, for many recent years by the WEF. Whatever the reasons are for the reluctance to participate fully, it is obvious that school leaders at all school levels are very interested in receiving gender education with an emphasis on changing gender stereotypes and avoiding sexual harassment in their schools. It is important to follow up on the strong demand for more education on gender issues among school leaders at pre-, compulsory and upper secondary level. It is also important to explore the practices, resistance and attitudes of teachers concerning education on gender issues, in view of the findings of this study as well as the recent strong #metoo movement in Iceland as elsewhere.Peer Reviewe