Organic livestock production

The development towards a sustainable agriculture has been a main objective of organic agriculture from the beginning (IFOAM, 1978), and a declared objective of the newly applied EC-Regulation (1804/1999) on organic livestock production which provides a clear framework for livestock production. The leading idea is based on the voluntary self-restriction in the use of specific means of production with the objectives to produce food of high quality in an animal appropriate and environmentally friendly manner within a nearly complete nutrient farm organism (Sundrum, 1998). With regard to an environmentally friendly production, organic livestock farming is characterised by: - System-oriented approach, - Renunciation of mineral nitrogen, pesticides, growth promoters, and GMO’s, - Maximum total stocking density of 2 large animal units per ha, - Restrictions in the amount and quality of bought-in feedstuffs. In the following, consequences of the framework and the production method are discussed in relation to the environmental issue. System-oriented approach Livestock production forms an integral part of agricultural holdings practising organic farming. Different agricultural fields are interrelated into a ‘farm organism’ which is driven by a nearly complete innerfarm nutrient cycle. A strict separation into lines of production is inappropriate to the idea of a nutrient cycle. With regard to nutrient losses, level of reference is the farm as a single unit and not a specific level of process engineering as is commonly used in conventional production. For example, it would be inappropriate to assess the emission of nitrogen in relation to the average milk yield per cow without taking the whole farm that is among others nitrogen losses in relation to fodder growing and distribution of manure into account. Prevention strategy The general renunciation of mineral nitrogen, risk materials (like pesticides) and controversially discussed substances (like GMO’s) is part of a prevention strategy, leading to a comparable low input of substances, into the farm and to a minimized output. Reduction of pollution or energy consumption is reached by a systemic and casually related approach, while conventional strategies are often based on technical and management related measures (Kristensen and Halberg, 1997). To assess nutrient losses on the farm level, the most common methodologies involve using balance sheets of the whole farm. Calculations demonstrate that the systemic effect of organic agriculture in both cattle and pig production has great implication on the nutrient balance and the balance-surplus in relation to the product (Haas, 1995; Halberg et al., 1995; Martinson, 1998; Sundrum & Trangolao, 2000). There is reason for the assumption that the benefit of the system-related approach on minimising pollution are much more effective as compared to management-related factors, such as increasing animal performance per animal per year. For example, reducing nitrogen input of 100 kg N/ha is more than doubly efficient in relation to the balance surplus than increasing average milk yield for 1.000 kg/cow and year (Mejs and Mandersloot, 1993). However, there is a high variability within organic farms in relation to their efforts and their nutrient efficiency. Dual strategy in relation to nitrogen In organic livestock production, feeding is primarily based on home-grown feedstuffs, including a high amount of legumes. As a consequence crude protein content in the diet often clearly exceeds the requirements of the animals and nitrogen in the manure is on a high level. In conventional production farmers are asked to reduce nitrogen in the diet in order to reduce nitrogen in the manure. In organic farming, a high level of crude protein in the diet is a very important nitrogen source for the innerfarm nutrient cycle. When trying to utilize this nitrogen source, organic farmers are encouraged simultaneously to minimize nitrogen emission from the manure. Due to the limited nitrogen resource, organic farmers have to find the balance within a dual strategy: increasing nitrogen in the manure and minimizing nitrogen emission form the manure. As nitrogen input in the organic farm is on a low level, organic farms are endowed with a credit in relation to nitrogen losses in the following production process. In the long run, the objective to increase productivity within the framework of organic agriculture goes along with improving management measures to minimize nitrogen emission. On the other hand, the increase of productivity from a high level as being realised in conventional production leads more or less to a higher efficacy of nitrogen turnover and a reduction in nitrogen losses per cow and milk yield (Kirchgessner et al., 1991). However, there is reason for the assumption that with reference to the conventional farm as a whole, nutrient efficacy will probably decrease due to a reduction in digestibility of feedstuffs and higher demands of bought-in concentrates. Those concentrates increase nutrient input in the farm and cause energy consumption especially due to transport. From these theoretical considerations the question arises whether the efforts to increase productivity will reach or even has already exceeded the marginal utility in relation to environmental effects. It can be concluded that both, a system oriented approach and a approach on the level of process engineering are needed to proceed in environmentally friendly production. Organic livestock production seems to be in the lead because production starts from a comparable low level of nutrient input

Animal health and welfare in organic livestock production in Europe– current state and future challenges

Existing data on animal health and welfare in organic livestock production systems in the European Community countries are reviewed in the light of the demands and challenges of the recently implemented EU regulation on organic livestock production. The main conclusions and recommendations of a three-year networking project on organic livestock production are summarised and the future challenges to organic livestock production in terms of welfare and health management are discussed. The authors conclude that, whilst the available data are limited and the implementation of the EC regulation is relatively recent, there is little evidence to suggest that organic livestock management causes major threats to animal health and welfare in comparison with conventional systems. There are, however, some well-identified areas, like parasite control and balanced ration formulation, where efforts are needed to find solutions that meet with organic standard requirements and guarantee high levels of health and welfare. It is suggested that, whilst organic standards offer an implicit framework for animal health and welfare management, there is a need to solve apparent conflicts between the organic farming objectives in regard to environment, public health, farmer income and animal health and welfare. The key challenges for the future of organic livestock production in Europe are related to the feasibility of implementing improved husbandry inputs and the development of evidence-based decision support systems for health and feeding management. (HOVI, M., A. SUNDRUM and S. M. THAMSBORG (2003): Animal health and welfare in organic livestock production in Europe – current state and future challenges. Livestock production science 80, 41-53.

Integrated forage and livestock production

Integrated forage and livestock production can be considered at the farm level and at the herd or animal level. At the farm level it is relevant to consider the overall utilization of N in the system in relation to crops and livestock. It is demonstrated that in organic dairy production a high transformation efficiency of N from input to edible products can be achieved compared, with conventional production. In addition, combining dairy and pig production allows an even higher N utilization. At the herd level the quality of grass or clover-grass based forage is extremely important. This holds for the overall intake and milk production in dairy cows and for the intake of clover-grass by grazing sows. In addition the composition of the sward should be considered in relation to the influence of specific plant species on the development of endoparasitic infections in ruminants and on the wear strength in relation to free-range pig production. For dairy production it is proposed that a strategy including only 20% concentrates (or cereals) of the dry matter in a total diet based on clover-grass and clover-grass silage represenst an efficient milk production without impairing the health of the cows

Air pollution and livestock production

The air in a livestock farming environment contains high concentrations of dust particles and gaseous pollutants. The total inhalable dust can enter the nose and mouth during normal breathing and the thoracic dust can reach into the lungs. However, it is the respirable dust particles that can penetrate further into the gas-exchange region, making it the most hazardous dust component. Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of dust particles can lead to respiratory health issues for both livestock and farming staff. Ammonia, an example of a gaseous pollutant, is derived from the decomposition of nitrous compounds. Increased exposure to ammonia may also have an effect on the health of humans and livestock. There are a number of technologies available to ensure exposure to these pollutants is minimised. Through proactive means, (the optimal design and management of livestock buildings) air quality can be improved to reduce the likelihood of risks associated with sub-optimal air quality. Once air problems have taken hold, other reduction methods need to be applied utilising a more reactive approach. A key requirement for the control of concentration and exposure of airborne pollutants to an acceptable level is to be able to conduct real-time measurements of these pollutants. This paper provides a review of airborne pollution including methods to both measure and control the concentration of pollutants in livestock buildings

Fundamental Forces Affecting Livestock Producers

Market Forces, Livestock Production, Porter’s Five Forces, Agribusiness, Livestock Production/Industries, L10, L22, L80, Q13,

Organic Livestock Production- A Bibliometric Review

Due to the increasing interest in organic farming, an overview of this research area is provided through a bibliometric analysis conducted between April and May 2019. A total of 320 documents were published up until 2018 on organic livestock farming, with an annual growth rate of 9.33% and a clear increase since 2005; 268 documents have been published in 111 journals. Germany is the country with the largest number of published papers (56 documents). Authors\u2019 top keywords (excluding keywords used for running the search) included: animal welfare (29 times), animal health (22 times), cattle (15 times), grazing (10 times), and sheep (10 times). This could indicate that more research has been done on cattle because of the importance of this species in Germany. Moreover, the prevalence of the terms \u2018animal welfare\u2019 and \u2018animal health\u2019 may indicate that the research on organic livestock production has been focused on these two areas. The bibliometric analysis indicates that: i) countries focused the organic livestock production research on their main production, and ii) more research in species other than cattle and sheep is needed

Economics of Enhanced Livestock Production

Production Economics,

The New Economics of Livestock Production Management

The importance of heterogeneity of animal attributes in livestock production is assessed. Preliminary results indicate that variance and skew measures of attributes may be becoming more important over time.livestock economics, herd management, livestock marketing, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing,

Review of agricultural production systems in eastern Africa in relation to food and nutrition security and climate change

The goal of this paper is to provide a unified resource for Eritrea, Djibouti, Somaliland, Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania. For each country the review covers the topics of livestock production systems and agroecological zones, food and nutrition security, climate change, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) with a focus on the role of, or impact on, livestock systems. Each of these topics is broad and many excellent studies and reviews have been produced covering these topics either at the country level or for the entire East Africa region. It is the goal of this paper to provide an accessible introduction to these topics and to direct readers to the resources that exist for gathering detailed information on livestock production, food nutrition and security, climate change, GHG emissions and climate-smart livestock production in each country

Research in Organic Animals and Livestock Production

Over the last 80 years a wide range of diverse organic livestock systems have developed. The driving force behind these developments has mainly been the farmers, consumers and various movements; and it has happened more “despite research” than “because of research.” Most production methods have developed in Western Europe and USA, where they are primarily niche products for consumers who give priority to environmental and animal welfare concerns. In these countries organic livestock production offers the option of establishing a niche product that can be sold at a higher price, e.g. as for milk and eggs. In some cases, the potential of organic farming is associated with the adoption of organic principles into existing systems with the aim of improving sustainability, and achieving environmentally friendly production, food security and good food quality. In the US, government support for organic research, some of which was for livestock studies, increased from 15 million dollars in 2002 to 78 million in 2008. In Australia where more than 95% of the certified organic land is pasture, government-supported research tends to focus on organic dairy and meat production. In addition, research into agro-forestry systems is also of potential interest to the Australian organic sector. In many African and Asian countries, organic livestock plays a very minor role compared with production of high value organic crops, and hence is not covered specifically in research initiatives. A recent survey on African organically-oriented research projects concluded that no significant research focuses on organic livestock. In South America, a number of research projects have been carried out on integrated agro-ecological farming, which includes livestock. These are not necessarily certified organic systems, as “organic” is often perceived as high value products, while “agro-ecological farming” is basically the application of the fundamental organic principles, so research in these systems provides valuable insights for organic research in general. Research is necessary for many reasons, but at a fundamental level it is relevant to both provide specialised knowledge relevant to organic situations (e.g. feed stuffs) and to take a systems approach through interdisciplinary research (e.g. how grazing systems integrate good animal welfare aims with environmental care). A third aspect important to consider is the human and social structures around organic livestock systems, e.g. farmer attitudes, actions, practices and interactions with advisory services