The Complementary Brain: A Unifying View of Brain Specialization and Modularity

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and Office of Naval Research (N00014-95-I-0409); National Science Foundation (ITI-97-20333); Office of Naval Research (N00014-95-I-0657

The Complementary Brain: From Brain Dynamics To Conscious Experiences

How do our brains so effectively achieve adaptive behavior in a changing world? Evidence is reviewed that brains are organized into parallel processing streams with complementary properties. Hierarchical interactions within each stream and parallel interactions between streams create coherent behavioral representations that overcome the complementary deficiencies of each stream and support unitary conscious experiences. This perspective suggests how brain design reflects the organization of the physical world with which brains interact, and suggests an alternative to the computer metaphor suggesting that brains are organized into independent modules. Examples from perception, learning, cognition, and action are described, and theoretical concepts and mechanisms by which complementarity is accomplished are summarized.Defense Advanced Research Projects and the Office of Naval Research (N00014-95-1-0409); National Science Foundation (ITI-97-20333); Office of Naval Research (N00014-95-1-0657

Light as a true visual quantity : principles of measurement

This Technical Report summarizes visual photometric measurement methods which can provide visually meaningful assessments of light. They can be more complicated than the simple use of of a V(?)-corrected physical photometer, and in addition require some understanding of the visual system and how it works. Their advantage is that the assessment of light bears a logical relationship to the human perception of light. For photopic vision and luminances larger than several cd/m2, ordinary physical photometers corrected to V(?) give visually accurate measures for small, centrally fixed, broad-band lights. For other applications, a different luminous efficiency function should be employed. In order to utilize the appropriate function, one must either measure the spectral distribution of radiant power directly or correct the V(?) response of the photometer to the appropriate luminous efficiency. An alternative solution is to calculate mathematical formulas specifically developed for this purpose. This method is potentially the most useful since different formulas can be developed for different applications (for example, two degree or ten degree fields). It is based on established CIE data, and no additional measures need to be developed.For scotopic vision, an assessment of radiant power is made with respect to the scotopic luminous efficiency function V'(?) by means of an appropriately corrected physical photometer, by radiance measurement, or by visual photometry. In mesopic photometry, the photopic and scotopic contributions of the light must be assessed. An estimate can be obtained by combining the photopic and scotopic luminances non-linearly. A more precise measure can be obtained by using three or, still better, four quantities based on X10, Y10, Z10, and V'(?)

Vision Sensors and Edge Detection

Vision Sensors and Edge Detection book reflects a selection of recent developments within the area of vision sensors and edge detection. There are two sections in this book. The first section presents vision sensors with applications to panoramic vision sensors, wireless vision sensors, and automated vision sensor inspection, and the second one shows image processing techniques, such as, image measurements, image transformations, filtering, and parallel computing

Kahden muuttujan sävyjen sekoitus – väriasteikoiden suunnittelu kahden muuttujan koropleettikartoille räätälöidyllä työkalulla

Bivariate maps are a type of map visualization where two related data series are displayed at once for each data point. They can answer questions of how two variables interrelate in a geographical context using several kinds of encodings — visual variables — such as shape or color. The most common types are choropleth maps that use color hue and lightness to encode data and symbol-based maps that use shape size for both data series. Bivariate maps have seen a minor surge in popularity with new software tools but remain an understudied visualization type with a lack of clear usage recommendations. The thesis consists of a theoretical and a practical part. The purpose was to collate existing recommendations about the design of bivariate maps and determine whether they are considered a useful type of visualization. The theoretical part was a literature survey of relevant visualization and cartography literature, including empirical studies. I also sought to see whether bivariate choropleths are considered more effective than other types. The practical part was building a web tool prototype for bivariate color scale creation limited to choropleth maps, the Bivariate hue blender. The tool uses the Hue-Chroma-Lightness (HCL) color space for scheme design. By rotating the hue angle of an input color by a user-defined amount, a new color can be created. Intermediate colors are generated by blending these two with each other and a light secondary input color. The primary purpose of the tool was to improve color scheme creation and the building process used the framework of research-based design. It involved building the tool, using it to evaluate seven existing palettes, and creating three new palettes. These were applied to four different bivariate maps using statistical data from Finland in two different geographical divisions. Test data was selected using contingency table visualizations to ensure that all classes contain values. In addition to the color scales, a bivariate ordinal texture design was created. Bivariate maps were found to be grouped in categories using the concept of integral and separable dimensions. Bivariate choropleth maps were found to be a relevant visualization type, provided that the data is suitable, and that the number of classes is no larger than 9. An issue pertaining to color contrast was identified — accessibility guidelines stipulate a lightness difference between adjacent hues that require the use of strokes in most choropleth maps. Questions concerning effectiveness of other types, how bivariate symbols interact and how viewers can use bivariate maps for analytical tasks remain unresolved. The tool was subjectively found to enable better control over bivariate color scale creation than other similar software. The evaluated bivariate palettes had issues in lightness uniformity and separation of colors, which could be resolved in the three new palettes. These were found to be at least as practical as the seven initial palettes. This work has concluded that bivariate maps can be considered useful in special cases with the right data, which should encourage visualization designers to employ them. It has contributed a prototype tool that aids the creation of new perceptually uniform color scales for bivariate choropleth maps. Three new colorblind-safe 3×3 palettes are an addition to the limited set of schemes in active use. The method of selecting data using contingency tables can aid in creating bivariate maps.Kahden muuttujan tietokartat ovat visualisointityyppi, jossa kaksi toisiinsa liittyvää tietosarjaa näytetään kunkin datapisteen kohdalla. Niillä voidaan tutkia kuinka kaksi muuttujaa ovat yhteydessä toisiinsa maantieteellisessä kontekstissa, käyttämällä useita erilaisia visuaalisia muuttujia – kuten muotoa tai väriä. Yleisimpiä tyyppejä ovat koropleettikartat, joissa käytetään värin sävyä ja vaaleutta tietojen esittämiseen, sekä symbolikartat, joissa käytetään muodon kokoa molemmille datasarjoille. Kahden muuttujan karttojen suosio on kasvanut uusien ohjelmistotyökalujen myötä, mutta ne ovat edelleen vähän tutkittu visualisointityyppi, josta puuttuvat selkeät käyttösuositukset. Opinnäytetyöni koostuu teoreettisesta ja käytännön osasta. Tarkoituksena on ollut koota olemassa olevia suosituksia kahden muuttujan kartoista ja selvittää, pidetäänkö niitä hyödyllisenä visualisointityyppinä. Teoriaosuus on kirjallisuuskatsaus visualisointi- ja kartografiakirjallisuuteen, mukaan luettuna myös empiiriset tutkimukset. Pyrin myös selvittämään, pidetäänkö kahden muuttujan koropleettikarttoja tehokkaampina kuin muita kahden muuttujan karttatyyppejä. Käytännön osuus on verkkotyökalun prototyyppi, Bivariate hue blender, joka on tehty kahden muuttujan väriasteikkojen luomista varten. Työkalu käyttää Hue-Chroma-Lightness (HCL; sävy, kromaattisuus, vaaleus) -väriavaruutta. Kun syötetyn värin sävykulmaa kääntää, syntyy uusi väri. Alkuperäisestä ja uudesta väristä luodaan kaksi erillistä väriasteikkoa vaaleasta aloitussävystä ja näitä yhdistämällä muodostetaan asteikon välivärit. Työkalun ensisijaisena tarkoituksena on ollut helpottaa väriasteikkojen luomista. Sen kehittämisessä on sovellettu tutkimukseen perustuvaa suunnittelua. Työkalun avulla on arvioitu seitsemän palettia ja luotu kolme uutta. Näitä on sovellettu neljään erilaiseen kahden muuttujan karttaan, joissa on käytetty tilastotietoja Suomesta kahden eri maantieteellisen jaon mukaan. Väriasteikkojen lisäksi on luotu kuviotekstuuri. Tutkimuksessa todetaan, että kahden muuttujan kartat voidaan jakaa luokkiin käyttäen kokonaisten ja eroteltavien ulottuvuuksien käsitettä. Koropleettikarttojen todetaan olevan toimiva laji, kunhan aineisto on sopiva ja luokkia enintään yhdeksän. Työssä tunnistettiin värikontrastiin liittyvä ongelma – esteettömyysohjeissa määrätyt vierekkäisten sävyjen vaaleuserot edellyttävät ääriviivojen käyttöä useimmissa kartoissa. Tutkimuksessa auki jäävät kysymykset koskevat muiden tyyppien tehokkuutta, kaksimuuttujaisten symbolien vuorovaikutusta ja sitä, kuinka katsoja lukee ja käyttää näitä karttoja. Työkalun voidaan todeta subjektiivisesti mahdollistavan paremman hallinnan kaksimuuttujaväriasteikkojen luomisessa vastaaviin ohjelmiin verrattuna. Arvioiduissa paleteissa oli ongelmia vaaleuden tasaisuudessa ja värien erottelussa, jotka nyt voitiin ratkaista kolmessa uudessa paletissa. Näiden todetaan olevan ainakin yhtä käytännöllisiä kuin seitsemän alkuperäistä palettia. Työn loppupäätelmä on, että kaksimuuttujaisia karttoja voidaan pitää hyödyllisinä tietyissä tapauksissa ja niihin soveltuvalla datalla, mikä voi kannustaa visualisointisuunnittelijoita käyttämään niitä. Työn tuloksena on prototyyppityökalu, joka auttaa luomaan uusia tasajakoisia väriskaaloja kahden muuttujan koropleettikarttoja varten. Kolme uutta palettia on lisäys aktiivisessa käytössä olevien kaksimuuttujaisten palettien rajalliseen joukkoon. Kontingenssitaulukoihin perustuva aineiston valintamenetelmä voi auttaa suunnittelijoita kahden muuttujan karttojen luomisessa

Printing Beyond Color: Spectral and Specular Reproduction

For accurate printing (reproduction), two important appearance attributes to consider are color and gloss. These attributes are related to two topics focused on in this dissertation: spectral reproduction and specular (gloss) printing. In the conventional printing workflow known as the metameric printing workflow, which we use mostly nowadays, high-quality prints -- in terms of colorimetric accuracy -- can be achieved only under a predefined illuminant (i.e. an illuminant that the printing pipeline is adjusted to; e.g. daylight). While this printing workflow is useful and sufficient for many everyday purposes, in some special cases, such as artwork (e.g. painting) reproduction, security printing, accurate industrial color communication and so on, in which accurate reproduction of an original image under a variety of illumination conditions (e.g. daylight, tungsten light, museum light, etc.) is required, metameric reproduction may produce satisfactory results only with luck. Therefore, in these cases, another printing workflow, known as spectral printing pipeline must be used, with the ideal aim of illuminant-invariant match between the original image and the reproduction. In this workflow, the reproduction of spectral raw data (i.e. reflectances in the visible wavelength range), rather than reproduction of colorimetric values (colors) alone (under a predefined illuminant) is taken into account. Due to the limitations of printing systems extant, the reproduction of all reflectances is not possible even with multi-channel (multi-colorant) printers. Therefore, practical strategies are required in order to map non-reproducible reflectances into reproducible spectra and to choose appropriate combinations of printer colorants for the reproduction of the mapped reflectances. For this purpose, an approach called Spatio-Spectral Gamut Mapping and Separation, SSGMS, was proposed, which results in almost artifact-free spectral reproduction under a set of various illuminants. The quality control stage is usually the last stage in any printing pipeline. Nowadays, the quality of the printout is usually controlled only in terms of colorimetric accuracy and common printing artifacts. However, some gloss-related artifacts, such as gloss-differential (inconsistent gloss appearance across an image, caused mostly by variations in deposited ink area coverage on different spots), are ignored, because no strategy to avoid them exists. In order to avoid such gloss-related artifacts and to control the glossiness of the printout locally, three printing strategies were proposed. In general, for perceptually accurate reproduction of color and gloss appearance attributes, understanding the relationship between measured values and perceived magnitudes of these attributes is essential. There has been much research into reproduction of colors within perceptually meaningful color spaces, but little research from the gloss perspective has been carried out. Most of these studies are based on simulated display-based images (mostly with neutral colors) and do not take real objects into account. In this dissertation, three psychophysical experiments were conducted in order to investigate the relationship between measured gloss values (objective quantities) and perceived gloss magnitudes (subjective quantities) using real colored samples printed by the aforementioned proposed printing strategies. These experiments revealed that the relationship mentioned can be explained by a Power function according to Stevens' Power Law, considering almost the entire gloss range. Another psychophysical experiment was also conducted in order to investigate the interrelation between perceived surface gloss and texture, using 2.5D samples printed in two different texture types and with various gloss levels and texture elevations. According to the results of this experiment, different macroscopic texture types and levels (in terms of texture elevation) were found to influence the perceived surface gloss level slightly. No noticeable influence of surface gloss on the perceived texture level was observed, indicating texture constancy regardless of the gloss level printed. The SSGMS approach proposed for the spectral reproduction, the three printing strategies presented for gloss printing, and the results of the psychophysical experiments conducted on gloss printing and appearance can be used to improve the overall print quality in terms of color and gloss reproduction

Engineering data compendium. Human perception and performance. User's guide

The concept underlying the Engineering Data Compendium was the product of a research and development program (Integrated Perceptual Information for Designers project) aimed at facilitating the application of basic research findings in human performance to the design and military crew systems. The principal objective was to develop a workable strategy for: (1) identifying and distilling information of potential value to system design from the existing research literature, and (2) presenting this technical information in a way that would aid its accessibility, interpretability, and applicability by systems designers. The present four volumes of the Engineering Data Compendium represent the first implementation of this strategy. This is the first volume, the User's Guide, containing a description of the program and instructions for its use