Conceptualising the digital divide

The term “digital divide” emerged in the 1990s to define inequalities in access to the Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), framing it as a matter of having or not having access to ICTs (Compaine 2001). The firsts empirical researches have shown how some specific socio-demographic variables, such as employment status, income, education level, geographic location, ethnicity, age, gender and family structure, influenced the access to the ICTs, creating a digital gap or divide among citizens (domestic digital divide) or countries (global digital divide). Such inequalities have widened during the years, despite the fact that the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Geneva (2003) and then in Tunis (2005) has stressed the idea that no one should be left out from the benefits offered by the information society. The importance of the Internet as a pre-requisite for economic and social development, has been further stressed by the United Nations in 2015 when the Internet has been included among its goals for resolving the most persistent social and economic challenges of our time (UN, 2015: 15). Indeed, in a digital enabled society, part of the human activities depends on how we access, generate and process information. It is then worth asking how the phenomenon of digital divide and digital inequalities has been approached and analysed by both scholars and policy makers and how such approach has changed over the years. Hence, the aim of this chapter is to discuss the change of perspectives in analysing and attempting to bridge the digital divide, and reconceptualise this concept by offering a nuanced theoretical approach to analyses the rise and persistence of digital inequalities

Exclusão digital: como é estar do lado errado da divisão digital = Digital exclusion: how it feels to be on the wrong side of the digital divide

O desenvolvimento da sociedade da informação reforçou a existência de obstáculos que dificultam o acesso e o uso apropriado das tecnologias por certos grupos, levando a novas formas de exclusão no mercado de trabalho, nas instituições governamentais, no lazer, e nas atividades educativas. Contudo, reduzir o hiato entre aqueles que estão conectados e aqueles que não estão tendo acesso físico mais barato e mais rápido à internet não resulta automaticamente numa eliminação da distância colocada pelas desigualdades digitais. É um erro assumir um posicionamento tecnologicamente determinista, que vê o acesso à tecnologia como solução para os problemas sociais, incluindo problemas de desigualdade social, democracia, liberdade, interação social e um senso de comunidade. Na verdade, muitas dimensões e padrões existentes podem gerar e reforçar desigualdades, aumentando ainda mais as distâncias entre cidadãos/usuários. O termo “hiato digital”, muitas vezes usado como expressão binária, pode não ser adequado porque sugere um hiato unidimensional, baseado principalmente no fator econômico – possuir tecnologia –, ao passo em que há hiatos em perspectivas múltiplas, que vão além do simples acesso ou da obtenção dos recursos. Essas dimensões criam desigualdades digitais que, se não forem retratadas, produzem e reforçam as desigualdades sociais. Os conceitos de estratificação social e digital estão intimamente interligados. The development of the information society has highlighted the existence of obstacles preventing certain social groups from accessing and properly using technologies, leading to new forms of exclusion from the job market, governmental institutions, leisure and academic activities. However, reducing the gap between those who connect and those who do not by offering cheaper and faster physical access does not automatically translate into closing the gap in terms of digital inequalities. The technological determinist position, which sees access to technology as being able to solve social problems, including problems of social inequality, democracy, freedom, social relationships and sense of community, is misleading. In fact, several dimensions and patterns can generate and reinforce inequalities, further increasing the distances between citizens/users. The term “digital divide”, often used as a binary expression, is confusing, because it suggests a one-dimensional gap, mainly based on the economic factor – possession of technologies –, while there are gaps in multiple dimensions that go beyond the simple access to or possession of resources. These dimensions create digital inequalities that, if not mirrored, can produce and reinforce social inequalities. The concepts of social and digital stratification are intimately intertwined

Exclusão digital: como é estar do lado errado da divisão digital

O desenvolvimento da sociedade da informação reforçou a existência de obstáculos que dificultam o acesso e o uso apropriado das tecnologias por certos grupos, levando a novas formas de exclusão no mercado de trabalho, nas instituições governamentais, no lazer, e nas atividades educativas. Contudo, reduzir o hiato entre aqueles que estão conectados e aqueles que não estão tendo acesso físico mais barato e mais rápido à internet não resulta automaticamente numa eliminação da distância colocada pelas desigualdades digitais. É um erro assumir um posicionamento tecnologicamente determinista, que vê o acesso à tecnologia como solução para os problemas sociais, incluindo problemas de desigualdade social, democracia, liberdade, interação social e um senso de comunidade. Na verdade, muitas dimensões e padrões existentes podem gerar e reforçar desigualdades, aumentando ainda mais as distâncias entre cidadãos/usuários. O termo “hiato digital”, muitas vezes usado como expressão binária, pode não ser adequado porque sugere um hiato unidimensional, baseado principalmente no fator econômico – possuir tecnologia –, ao passo em que há hiatos em perspectivas múltiplas, que vão além do simples acesso ou da obtenção dos recursos. Essas dimensões criam desigualdades digitais que, se não forem retratadas, produzem e reforçam as desigualdades sociais. Os conceitos de estratificação social e digital estão intimamente interligados.The development of the information society has highlighted the existence of obstacles preventing certain social groups from accessing and properly using technologies, leading to new forms of exclusion from the job market, governmental institutions, leisure and academic activities. However, reducing the gap between those who connect and those do not by offering cheaper and faster physical access does not automatically translate into closing the gap in terms of digital inequalities. The technological determinist position, which sees access to technology as being able to solve social problems, including problems of social inequality, democracy, freedom, social relationships and sense of community, is misleading. In fact, several dimensions and patterns can generate and reinforce inequalities, further increasing the distances between citizens/users. The term “digital divide”, often used in binary term, is confusing, because it suggests a one-dimensional gap, mainly based on the economic factor (possession of technologies), while there are gaps in multiple dimensions that go beyond the simple access to or possession of resources. These dimensions create digital inequalities that, if not mirrored, produce and reinforce social inequalities. The concepts of social and digital stratification are intimately intertwined

Information societies in Latin America and the Caribbean: development of techonologies and technologies for development

Includes bibliographySpanish version available at the LibraryThis book analyses the development of information societies in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, and provides input for public policy on information and communications technologies (ICT) issues

Fast-tracking the digital revolution : broadband for Latin America and the Caribbean

This study is based on the premise that broadband is central to a technological, organizational and social innovation system, one which calls for new policies that are flexible, long-term approaches encompassing the objectives of greater productivity, innovation, competitiveness, social inclusion and sustainability. The study focuses on improving and developing broadband accessibility in Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) countries, alongside strategies for the development of public policies, including the role of the State, the role of regulation in market growth and service access, demand incentives, and the proper management of scarce resources such as spectrum availability

Investigations into the dynamics of the ICT ecosystem in Luxembourg

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are increasingly acknowledged as a General-Purpose Technology touching all sectors of the economy and offering the potential of technological improvements, increases in productivity and innovation as well as economic growth. Nevertheless, there is an on-going, fervent debate amongst scholars, practitioners and policy makers about the relevance of ICT as a sector of the economy in its own right. Consequently, researchers have shown great interest in examining the importance and the development of ICT ecosystems in different countries and regions of the world. Up until now, however, smaller countries have often been overlooked, perhaps guided by an assumption that findings from larger economies could simply be transposed to such settings. This thesis set outs to address this research gap by investigating the ICT industry in Luxembourg, focusing on key developments since the telecommunications market was liberalised in the late 1990s as a means of identifying the main forces shaping developments within the sector in the period between 2000 and 2017. This research aim has been broken down into four specific research objectives, which were: to examine the size and the structure of the ICT ecosystem in Luxembourg; to understand the role of the state as policy maker, regulator and as actor within the ecosystem; to analyse the current strengths and weaknesses of the ICT ecosystem and, to identify the needs for specific changes and improvements. Overall, a critical realist approach has been adopted for the research, applying a quantitative analysis on existing data and complementing this with a qualitative approach building on new empirical data. Working for over 30 years as a manager and executive within media, telecommunication and ICT in Luxembourg, the author was able to interact with many senior professionals within the ICT industry in Luxembourg. Thus over 70 interviews have been conducted with a sample of executives from ICT organisations and institutions such as regulators, policy makers or promotion agencies. The outcomes of these interviews were complemented and triangulated with the help a 4-year long press review and an analysis of publicly available secondary sources. One of the primary research outcomes has been a detailed identification and discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of Luxembourg’s ICT ecosystem. Luxembourg has done well to focus on developing its ICT infrastructures and triggering the use of these infrastructures. Luxembourg has also performed well in liberalising its telecommunication sector and encouraging competition. In doing so, Luxembourg has been able to improve its position in terms of its ranking in international ICT related indices. However, Luxembourg’s weaknesses have been identified in terms of marketing and communication in the context of international competition, limited risk taking and the lack of creativity and entrepreneurship. An unexpected finding arose as it appeared that Luxembourg had neglected to develop or sustain a labour force with the necessary underlying e-skills and ICT competences. This problem has been acknowledged since and some initial remedial actions have been taken. A major contribution to knowledge is a new conceptual and methodological framework to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of ICT ecosystems. This framework can be seen as a development and extension of the ICT ecosystem model developed by Martin Fransman. It may also potentially be applied to similar environments in order to make sense of their ICT ecosystem, or indeed to other network related ecosystems. Finally, the author has determined some implications for policy makers and suggested avenues for further research

Plataformas digitais : novas formas de organização da economia e inovação nas cidades

O desenvolvimento tecnológico, aliado à crescente expansão da internet, tem assumido um papel cada vez mais relevante para o desenvolvimento das empresas, bem como para a construção de um novo contexto económico marcado pelo aparecimento das plataformas digitais. Resultante deste novo contexto, tem sido reconhecido que estamos perante uma nova fase económica ou uma nova fase do capitalismo, a qual se designa por economia de plataforma. Esta lógica baseia-se na criação e integração das empresas em plataformas digitais e caracteriza-se por fomentar modelos de negócio abertos à participação de diferentes tipos de atores externos. Estes atores representam um leque variado de recursos que proporcionam às empresas a possibilidade de desenvolver novos produtos e serviços que antes não seriam possíveis. As plataformas digitais assumem o papel de intermediadoras e potenciadoras destas relações entre uma determinada empresa e os vários atores que integram cada ecossistema. Contudo, o aparecimento das plataformas digitais tem vindo a contribuir para o crescimento de uma economia de plataforma desigual. Desde a forma como são concebidas, até às questões de acesso e competências, vários são os níveis de divisões digitais que se podem identificar. Tendo em conta as potencialidades que as plataformas digitais têm vindo a oferecer às empresas, mas também os vários desafios que colocam, esta investigação procura compreender de que forma é que as plataformas digitais têm contribuído para moldar os ecossistemas das empresas, bem como para a divisão digital da economia de plataforma nas cidades. Este estudo debruça-se em particular sobre o caso do setor da restauração em Lisboa e a plataforma TripAdvisor. Esta escolha prende-se com o reconhecimento e visibilidade internacional da plataforma TripAdvisor, mas também por esta ser uma das plataformas com uma cobertura mais significativa para a cidade de Lisboa. A metodologia deste estudo baseia-se na triangulação de diferentes métodos de natureza quantitativa e qualitativa, cujas etapas foram as seguintes: i) o estudo da distribuição espacial dos estabelecimentos de restauração, com o propósito de obter informação sobre a cobertura territorial da plataforma TripAdvisor no setor da restauração, através da extração e análise de dados espaciais do TripAdvisor; ii) o estudo dos diferentes níveis de interação entre os empresários da restauração e o TripAdvisor, através da realização de um inquérito por questionário via online; e iii) os efeitos que têm sido gerados a partir do uso dos serviços disponibilizados pelas plataformas digitais, através da realização de entrevistas empresariais semi-estruturadas. Esta tese mostra que as plataformas oferecem novas formas de cocriação de valor às empresas, ao contribuírem para a formação de ecossistemas. O crescente envolvimento das empresas nesta lógica tem vindo a alterar os modelos de negócio existentes e, sobretudo, o paradigma económico em que nos situamos. Aquilo que denominamos de economia de plataforma deve ser entendido não só como o resultado do desenvolvimento tecnológico e da emergência das plataformas digitais, mas principalmente da mudança de visão estratégica por parte das empresas, que cada vez mais procuram novas oportunidades de crescimento através de uma maior abertura e interação com elementos externos. Contudo, devido à forma como as plataformas digitais têm sido concebidas, observa-se um desenvolvimento desigual entre as empresas, devido às ciberdivisões que lhes são intrínsecas. Neste sentido, assiste-se a um crescimento da economia de plataforma de forma desigual, sendo que o ponto de partida para a formação dessa desigualdade se encontra na própria estrutura das plataformas.Technological development and the growing expansion of the internet are having an increasing impact on firm growth. Furthermore, we are witnessing the emergence of a new economic context characterized by the growing significance of digital platforms. In this context, it has been acknowledged that we are facing a new economic phase or a new phase of capitalism, which has been conceived as the platform economy. This logic is based on the creation and integration of firms in digital platforms, which fosters business models that are open to the participation of different types of external actors. Such actors provide a wide range of resources that offer the possibility of developing new products and services that would not have been possible otherwise. Digital platforms take on the role of intermediaries and enhancers of these relationships between firms and the various actors that constitute each ecosystem. However, the emergence of digital platforms has led to an unequal platform economy. Several levels of the digital divide can be identified in the platform economy, from the way that platforms are conceived to the issues of access and skills. Taking into account the potential that digital platforms have been offering to firms, but also the various challenges they pose, this thesis seeks to understand how digital platforms have contributed to the construction of firm ecosystems, as well as to the digital divide of the platform economy in cities. This study focuses on the case of the restaurant sector in Lisbon and the TripAdvisor platform. This choice is linked to the international recognition and visibility of the TripAdvisor platform, and the fact that TripAdvisor is one of the platforms with the most significant coverage for the city of Lisbon. The methodology of this study is based on the triangulation of quantitative and qualitative methods, namely: i) the study of the spatial distribution of restaurant and similar establishments, in order to obtain information on the territorial coverage of the restaurant sector in TripAdvisor, which was achieved through analysis of spatial data from TripAdvisor; ii) the study of the different levels of interaction between restaurant managers and TripAdvisor, which was conducted through an online survey by questionnaire; and iii) the study of the effects of the use of services provided by digital platforms, which was conducted through semi-structured corporate interviews. This thesis shows that platforms offer new ways of co-creating value for firms, by contributing to the formation of ecosystems. The growing involvement of firms in this logic has been changing business models and, more importantly, the current economic paradigm. What we call platform economy should be understood not only as the result of technological development and the emergence of digital platforms, but mainly of the change in the firms’ strategic visions, which increasingly seek new growth opportunities through greater openness and interaction with external elements. However, due to the way in which digital platforms have been conceived, there is an uneven development among firms, due to the cyberdivisions that are intrinsic to the platforms. In this sense, we are witnessing an uneven growth of the platform economy, and the starting point for the formation of this inequality is found in the structure of the platforms themselves