The unexplained nature of reading.

The effects of properties of words on their reading aloud response times (RTs) are 1 major source of evidence about the reading process. The precision with which such RTs could potentially be predicted by word properties is critical to evaluate our understanding of reading but is often underestimated due to contamination from individual differences. We estimated this precision without such contamination individually for 4 people who each read 2,820 words 50 times each. These estimates were compared to the precision achieved by a 31-variable regression model that outperforms current cognitive models on variance-explained criteria. Most (around 2/3) of the meaningful (non-first-phoneme, non-noise) word-level variance remained unexplained by this model. Considerable empirical and theoretical-computational effort has been expended on this area of psychology, but the high level of systematic variance remaining unexplained suggests doubts regarding contemporary accounts of the details of the mechanisms of reading at the level of the word. Future assessment of models can take advantage of the availability of our precise participant-level database

Early development of abstract language knowledge: evidence from perception-production transfer of birth-language memory

Children adopted early in life into another linguistic community typically forget their birth language but retain, unaware, relevant linguistic knowledge that may facilitate (re) learning of birth-language patterns. Understanding the nature of this knowledge can shed light on how language is acquired. Here, international adoptees from Korea with Dutch as their current language, and matched Dutch-native controls, provided speech production data on a Korean consonantal distinction unlike any Dutch distinctions, at the outset and end of an intensive perceptual training. The productions, elicited in a repetition task, were identified and rated by Korean listeners. Adoptees' production scores improved significantly more across the training period than control participants' scores, and, for adoptees only, relative production success correlated significantly with the rate of learning in perception (which had, as predicted, also surpassed that of the controls). Of the adoptee group, half had been adopted at 17 months or older (when talking would have begun), while half had been prelinguistic (under six months). The former group, with production experience, showed no advantage over the group without. Thus the adoptees' retained knowledge of Korean transferred from perception to production and appears to be abstract in nature rather than dependent on the amount of experience.The research was supported by a doctoral fellowship from the Max Planck Society (J.C.), with additional support from NWO-Veni (M.B.) and NWO-Spinoza (A.C.). Further support during preparation of the manuscript is acknowledged from the ARC Centre of Excellence for the Dynamics of Language (A.C., J.C.), NWO-Vidi (M.B.) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (J.C.)

Language, perception and production in profoundly deaf children

Prelingually profoundly deaf children usually experience problems with language learning (Webster, 1986; Campbell, Burden & Wright, 1992). The acquisition of written language would be no problem for them if normal development of reading and writing was not dependent on spoken language (Pattison, 1986). However, such children cannot be viewed as a homogeneous group since some, the minority, do develop good linguistic skills. Group studies have identified several factors relating to language skills: hearing loss and level of loss, I.Q., intelligibility, lip-reading, use of phonology and memory capacity (Furth, 1966; Conrad, 1979; Trybus & Karchmer, 1977; Jensema, 1975; Baddeley, Papagno & Vallar, 1988; Baddeley & Wilson, 1988; Hanson, 1989; Lake, 1980; Daneman & Carpenter,1980). These various factors appear to be interrelated, with phonological awareness being implicated in most. So to understand behaviour, measures of all these factors must be obtained. The present study aimed to achieve this whilst investigating the prediction that performance success may be due to better use of phonological information. Because linguistic success for the deaf child is exceptional, a case study approach was taken to avoid obscuring subtle differences in performance. Subjects were screened to meet 6 research criteria: profound prelingual deafness, no other known handicap, English the first language in the home, at least average non-verbal IQ , reading age 7-9 years and inter-subject dissimilarities between chronological reading age discrepancies. Case histories were obtained from school records and home interviews. Six subjects with diverse linguistic skills were selected, four of which undertook all tests. Phonological awareness and development was assessed across several variables: immediate memory span, intelligibility, spelling, rhyme judgement, speech discrimination and production. There was considerable inter-subject performance difference. One boy's speech production was singled out for a more detailed analysis. Useful aided hearing and consistent contrastive speech appear to be implicated in other English language skills. It was concluded that for phonological awareness to develop, the deaf child must receive useful inputs from as many media as possible (e.g., vision, audition, articulation, sign and orthography). When input is biassed toward the more reliable modalities of audition and articulation, there is a greater possibility of a robust and useful phonology being derived and thus better access to the English language

The Effect of Speech Elicitation Method on Second Language Phonemic Accuracy

The present study, a One-Group Posttest-Only Repeated-Measures Design, examined the effect of speech elicitation method on second language (L2) phonemic accuracy of high functional load initial phonemes found in frequently occurring nouns in American English. This effect was further analyzed by including the variable of first language (L1) to determine if L1 moderated any effects found. The data consisted of audio recordings of 61 adult English learners (ELs) enrolled in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses at a large, public, post-secondary institution in the United States. Phonemic accuracy was judged by two independent raters as either approximating a standard American English (SAE) pronunciation of the intended phoneme or not, thus a dichotomous scale, and scores were assigned to each participant in terms of the three speech elicitation methods of word reading, word repetition, and picture naming. Results from a repeated measures ANOVA test revealed a statistically significant difference in phonemic accuracy (F(1.47, 87.93) = 25.94, p = .000) based on speech elicitation method, while the two-factor mixed design ANOVA test indicated no statistically significant differences for the moderator variable of native language. However, post-hoc analyses revealed that mean scores of picture naming tasks differed significantly from the other two elicitation methods of word reading and word repetition. Moreover, the results of this study should heighten attention to the role that various speech elicitation methods, or input modalities, might play on L2 productive accuracy. Implications for practical application suggest that caution should be used when utilizing pictures to elicit specific vocabulary words–even high-frequency words–as they might result in erroneous productions or no utterance at all. These methods could inform pronunciation instructors about best teaching practices when pronunciation accuracy is the objective. Finally, the impact of L1 on L2 pronunciation accuracy might not be as important as once thought

Neural mechanisms of foreign language phoneme acquisition in early adulthood : MEG study

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää omaan äidinkieleen kuulumattomien foneemikontrastien oppimisen mekanismeja nuorilla aikuisilla neurofysiologisten ja behavioraalisten menetelmien avulla. Perinteisesti kielen foneettisen avaruuden omaksumisen on ajateltu tapahtuvan ensisijaisesti varhaislapsuuden kielellisten herkkyyskausien aikana, jonka jälkeen uusien foneemien oppiminen on haastavaa. Myöhemmät tutkimukset ovat kuitenkin osoittaneet, että vieraiden foneemien omaksuminen on mahdollista myös aikuisiällä. Uusien foneemikategorioiden muodostuminen vaatii aivoissa solutason plastisia muutoksia. Aivojen kykyä erotella läheisesti toisiaan muistuttavia foneemikategorioita kielenprosessoinnin varhaisella tasolla on tutkittu neurofysiologisin menetelmin esimerkiksi tapahtumasidonnaisen poikkeavuusnegatiivisuusvasteen (eng. mismatch negativity, MMN) avulla. MMN-vaste, tai sen magneettinen vastine MMNm, syntyy seurauksena muutoksiin sensorisessa havaintoympäristössä. Tutkimuksissa lyhyenkin auditiivisen harjoittelujakson on havaittu vahvistavan aivojen kykyä erotella läheisesti toisiaan muistuttavia vieraita foneemeja ja voimistavan MMN- ja MMNm-vasteita. Tässä tutkimuksessa vieraan kielen foneettisen oppimisen neuraalista perustaa ja oppimisen aiheuttamia plastisia muutoksia aivoissa tutkittiin magnetoenkefalografialla (MEG) neuromagneettisten tapahtumasidonnaisten vasteiden (erityisesti MMNm) avulla. Tutkimuksessa mitattiin 20 suomalaista koehenkilöä, joiden tehtävänä oli oppia erottelemaan akustisesti toisiaan läheisesti muistuttavia venäjän kielen frikatiiveja Ш /ʂ/ ja Щ /ɕ(ː)/. Erottelukykyä mitattiin ensin behavioraalisella tehtävällä, jossa koehenkilöille toistettiin nauhoitettuja venäjänkielisiä epäsanaminimipareja, jossa sanan ensimmäistä foneemia varioitiin. Koehenkilöiden tehtävänä oli vastata, kuulivatko he sanoissa eroa. Samoja kuuloärsykkeitä toistettiin koehenkilöille sen jälkeen passiivisessa MEG-tehtävässä, jossa testattiin aivojen kykyä havaita ero ärsykkeissä ilman, että niihin kiinnitetään huomiota (koehenkilöt katselivat samalla äänetöntä elokuvaa). Mittauksen jälkeen koehenkilöt harjoittelivat foneemien erottelua kotona noin viikon ajan tietokoneavusteisen oppimispelin avulla, jonka jälkeen heidät mitattiin uudelleen. MEG-signaalien lähdemallinnusta varten koehenkilöiden aivoista otettiin myös rakenteelliset magneettikuvat. Tutkittavien foneemien behavioraalinen erottelukyky oli selvästi tuttuja kontrollifoneemeita heikompaa. Erottelukyky vaikutti paranevan harjoittelun seurauksena hieman, mutta ero ei ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevä. Hypoteesien vastaisesti tilastollisesti merkitseviä MMNm-vasteita ei löydetty ennen eikä jälkeen harjoittelun, eikä muissakaan auditorisissa MEG-vasteissa tai niiden neuraalisten lähdevirtojen voimakkuuksissa tai jakaumassa ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevää eroa mittauskertojen välillä. Yksilölliset erot oppimisessa olivat kuitenkin suuria. Koehenkilöillä, joilla behavioraalinen erottelukyky parani harjoittelun myötä, oli silmämääräisesti havaittavissa hypoteesien mukaista vahvistumista auditorisissa vasteissa. Vaikka efekti oli erittäin pieni eikä tilastollisesti merkitsevä, vastaavaa ei havaittu epäoppijoilla eikä kontrollitilanteessa. Tässä tutkimuksessa ei kyetty replikoimaan aiempien tutkimusten tuloksia foneemien omaksumisesta aikuisiällä. Vaikka on todennäköistä, että tietyt metodologiset heikkoudet (mm. vähäinen ärsykkeiden määrä MEG-tehtävässä, haastavat ärsykkeet) vaikuttivat tulosten merkitsevyyteen, voidaan tämän tutkimuksen valossa aiempien tutkimustulosten yleistettävyyttä kyseenalaistaa.The aim of this study is to examine the learning mechanisms and acquisition of non-native phoneme contrasts in young adults using neurophysiological and behavioral methods. According to the traditional view, acquiring novel phonemes after the sensitive periods in the early childhood is very difficult. However, later findings have shown that foreign phoneme contrasts can be learned at a later age, too. Acquiring new phonemic categories requires neuroplastic changes in the brain. Neurophysiological studies have examined the brain’s ability to differentiate between closely related phonemic categories at the early stage of spoken language processing by measuring, for example, event-related mismatch negativity responses (MMN). MMN, or its magnetic equivalent MMNm, is elicited when the brain registers a difference in a repetitive sensory stimulus. Studies have shown that even a moderate amount of auditory training with closely related foreign phonemes improves the brain’s ability to discriminate between them resulting in enhanced MMN or MMNm responses. In this experiment the neural mechanisms of foreign language phoneme acquisition and the learning-related neuroplastic changes were studied using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and neuromagnetic evoked responses (MMNm in particular). 20 Finnish subjects were measured in the experiment. Their task was to learn to differentiate between acoustically closely related Russian fricatives Ш /ʂ/ and Щ /ɕ(ː)/. The subjects’ differentiation skills were first tested in a behavioral task where Russian pseudoword minimal pairs were presented to them auditorily. The first phoneme in the word pairs was varied and the subjects had to report whether they heard a difference between the words or not. The same stimuli were then presented in a passive MEG task where the brain’s change detection responses were tested in an unattended situation as the subjects were watching a silent film. After the measurement the subjects practiced the phonemes at home for approximately one week by playing a learning game by computer. After training they were measured again. Structural magnetic resonance images of the subjects’ brain were also measured for MEG source localization purposes. Behavioral discrimination ability of the experimental phonemes was considerably worse than with familiar control phonemes. The discrimination skills seemed to improve by training, but the difference was not statistically significant. Contrary to the hypotheses, statistically significant MMNm responses were not found before or after training. No significant differences were found in other auditory MEG responses or their neural source current distributions between the measurements either. However, individual differences in learning were sizeable. For the subjects who improved their performance in the behavioral task a modest training-related boost in the auditory responses supporting the hypotheses could be observed. Although very small and statistically insignificant, the effect was opposite for control stimuli and did not exist in the non-learner group suggesting some sort of change in neural processing in the learner group. This study was not able to replicate the findings from various previous studies on phoneme acquisition in adulthood. Although it is likely that certain methodological limitations (e.g. small number of stimulus repetitions, challenging stimuli) affected the significance of the results, based on this study the generalizability of some of the previous findings can be called into question

Perceptual learning of context-sensitive phonetic detail

[Abstract abbreviated due to inability of DSpace@Cambridge to display phonetic symbols. Please see the full abstract in the attached pdf file.] Although familiarity with a talker or accent is known to facilitate perception, it is not clear what underlies this phenomenon. Previous research has focused primarily on whether listeners can learn to associate novel phonetic characteristics with low-level units such as features or phonemes. However, this neglects the potential role of phonetic information at many other levels of representation. To address this shortcoming, this thesis investigated perceptual learning of systematic phonetic detail relating to higher levels of linguistic structure, including prosodic, grammatical and morphological contexts. Furthermore, in contrast to many previous studies, this research used relatively natural stimuli and tasks, thus maximising its relevance to perceptual learning in ordinary listening situations. This research shows that listeners can update their phonetic representations in response to incoming information and its relation to linguistic-structural context. In addition, certain patterns of systematic phonetic detail were more learnable than others. These findings are used to inform an account of how new information is integrated with prior experience in speech processing, within a framework that emphasises the importance of phonetic detail at multiple levels of representation.This work was funded by an AHRC grant