Cheating in online gaming spreads through observation and victimization

Antisocial behavior can be contagious, spreading from individual to individual and rippling through social networks. Moreover, it can spread not only through third-party influence from observation, just like innovations or individual behavior do, but also through direct experience, via “pay-it-forward” retaliation. Here, we distinguish between the effects of observation and victimization for the contagion of antisocial behavior by analyzing large-scale digital trace data. We study the spread of cheating in more than a million matches of an online multiplayer first-person shooter game, in which up to 100 players compete individually or in teams against strangers. We identify event sequences in which a player who observes or is killed by a certain number of cheaters starts cheating and evaluate the extent to which these sequences would appear if we preserve the team and interaction structure but assume alternative gameplay scenarios. The results reveal that social contagion is only likely to exist for those who both observe and experience cheating, suggesting that third-party influence and “pay-it-forward” reciprocity interact positively. In addition, the effect is present only for those who both observe and experience more than once, suggesting that cheating is more likely to spread after repeated or multi-source exposure. Approaching online games as models of social systems, we use the findings to discuss strategies for targeted interventions to stem the spread of cheating and antisocial behavior more generally in online communities, schools, organizations, and sports

Information Diffusion and Social Influence in Online Networks.

The explosive growth of online social systems has changed how individuals consume and disseminate information. In this thesis, we conduct large-scale observational and experimental studies that allow us to determine the role that social networks play in information diffusion online, and the factors that mediate this influence. We first examine the adoption of user-created content in a virtual world, and find that social transmission appears to play a prominent role in the adoption of content. Ultimately, we are faced with a critical problem that underlies all contemporary empirical research on social influence: how do we measure whether individuals in a network influence one another, when the basis for their interaction rests upon commonalities that are predictive of their future behavior? We use two coupled experiments to address this question. In our first experiment, we randomize exposure to social signals about friends' information sharing behavior to determine the causal effect of networks on diffusion among 253 million subjects in situ. Our second experiment further tests how social information affects individual sharing decisions when viewing content. Finally, this thesis concludes with a study that examines how individuals allocate attention across their network of contacts, which has implications for influence and information diversity in networks.Ph.D.InformationUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/89838/1/ebakshy_1.pd

When Artificial Feedback Hurts — Empirical Evidence from Community-Based Configuration Systems

Mass Customization technologies are increasingly becoming social and allow for inter-individual exchange processes such as community-based configuration systems online. But while companies foster community interactions and open their configuration systems, it is not clear (1.) how virtual interactions influence individuals\u27 subjective product satisfaction, since their final decision may not be based on their own exclusive preferences, and (2.) how these usually anonymous feedback processes may directly affect individuals\u27 perception of their own selves. We applied an experimental research design in a virtual community environment and provide evidence that anonymous feedback significantly influences consumers’ decision behavior and that increased deviations from an initial decision negatively affects individual product satisfaction. Moreover, we revealed new theoretical and practical insight that feedback effects can directly and negatively influence individuals\u27 perception of self-worth and that common affirmation strategies may backfire and finally result in considerably lower self-esteem and satisfaction

Cyber Citizens and Cyber Deviance: Exploring Social and Technical Factors as Antecedents to Cyber Deviance and the Implications for Cyber Citizenship

There is an alarming trend of individuals behaving inappropriately with information technology in both organizational and personal settings. For example, in a work context individuals are breaking repeatedly security protocols (Hovav et al. 2011) leading to the compromise of sensitive customer and important organizational data resources. Information systems (IS) researchers have studied the manners by which employees use, and misuse, information technology within organizations (Warkentin et al. 2009). Alternatively, in a non-work context, attention has been given to digital media piracy (Siponen et al. 2012) which continues to plague organizations. These examples illustrate some unacceptable behaviors exhibited by cyber citizens (Anderson et al. 2010) – both in the work and non-work settings. Typically, the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable cyber behavior are defined by government authorities, who develop laws around specific illegal online behaviors, and businesses, who detail inappropriate actions in their terms of service agreements. Past research has shown that even with detailed guidelines, employees continue to cause breaches in security (Harris 2012) and these actions are greatly influenced by the behaviors of their coworkers (Gallivan et al. 2005). Alternatively, in a non-work environment, computer users operate within a precarious social and technological environment where the guidelines on appropriate behavior are vague (Nowak 2011). In such an ill-defined context, individuals tend to refer to accepted social norms as a guide, rather than try to understand the disparity between laws and policies (Morrison 1994). Research in criminology, sociology, and management, has focused on deviant behaviors with technology, termed cyber deviance. This term refers to inappropriate or criminal behavior in a digital context (Holt et al. 2010). Technical solutions are only marginally effective as deviant cyber behavior continues to proliferate (Rogers et al. 2006). Research has examined individual factors, such as self-control, in order to explain cyber deviant behaviors (Hinduja et al. 2008). Social factors have begun to be examined through the use of social learning theory and social cognitive theory to explain the ways in which attitudes and beliefs influence cyber deviance (Jacobs et al. 2012). Although studies that examine the individual, social, and technical factors have provided insight into cyber deviance behavior, they have not considered such behavior as part of cyber citizenship, where individuals behave in an ethical and productive manner in online environments. Additionally, recent IS research has begun to explore alternative ways to influence social norms and attitudes on individual behaviors in online environments in order to create more conscientious cyber citizens (Anderson et al. 2010). Therefore, this study aims to examine the individual, social, and technical factors that impact one’s intention to engage in cyber deviance. In this study, we focus on the illegal activities that occur in a digital environment. This highlights the unique actions that occur between humans and technology, suggesting this study is best served from such a perspective. Scialdone (2010) provides human computer interaction (HCI) researchers with a useful framework for examining phenomena that occur between humans and technology. Researchers must identify the human, the technology, the tasks, and the context to clearly situate their study in the HCI literature (Scialdone 2010). In this study we focus on average PC users and their interactions in computer-mediated social networks (CMSN). We examine individual factors, Perceived Utility of Cyber Deviance and Self-efficacy in Cyber Deviance; social factors, Cyber Citizen Social Norms on Cyber Deviance, and technical factors, CMSN Influencer and CMSN Intensity. The proposed research methodology is a quantitative approach using a quasi-experimental setup (Bhattacherjee 2012) through the use of scenarios which describe situations of cyber deviance. The use of scenarios allows us to provide a specific situation which serves as a reference point for our inquiry into the concepts of interest (Nagin and Paternoster 1993)

A Social Cognitive Approach Towards Understanding The Effects Of Popular Poker Television Shows On College Students

Tournament poker shows have become a leading ratings draw on American television. Since ESPN and the Travel Channel began airing their innovative poker shows in 2003, the game has reached a new following, particularly among college students. There are unique and psychologically significant factors that characterize the college population that make students particularly receptive to popular characterizations in media. This study investigates the potential exacerbating effect that these widely popular poker television shows have on the gambling behavior of college students. 444 college students completed a survey designed to assess gratifications sought through media along with measures of attitudes, gambling behavior, and social systems. Using Social Cognitive Theory as a framework of influence, exposure to these shows ranging from the individual student to the overall college environment was assessed and evaluated. Results indicated that student gambling is strongly correlated to viewership of poker shows, particularly among younger students. This was especially seen among students who utilized the online gambling option. Gambling behavior of peers wasn\u27t shown to be a strong influence for student gambling. However, excitement was shown to be a strong variable that should be looked at closer

Web analytics, social media, and the journalistic doxa : the impact of audience feedback on the evolving gatekeeping process

New communication technologies have allowed not only new ways in which the audience interacts with the news but also new ways in which journalists can monitor online audience behavior. Through new audience information systems--web analytics and social media--the influence of the audience on the news construction process is increasing. This occurs as the journalistic field tries to survive a shrinking audience for news. In this mixed methods research, I argue that how journalists conceive of the audience as a form of capital influences the extent to which journalists integrate audience feedback from analytics and social media in their news work. I developed this theoretical framework through case studies of three online newsrooms that included a total of 150 hours of observations and 30 respondent interviews. I subsequently tested the theoretical framework refined through my qualitative analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) based on survey data collected from 276 online editors. The findings showed a process of negotiation--between providing what audiences need and what they want, between editorial autonomy and audience influence, and between individual agency and organizational constraints--that should clarify how we understand gatekeeping in this age of a knowable and quantifiable audience.Includes bibliographical references (pages 205-223)

Identifying the patterns of co-presence and social interactions in the dwellings of contemporary Sri Lankan suburbs through the virtual fieldworks

Co-presence is the idea that the presence of other actors shapes the individual behavior and creates the base for social interactions leading to a harmonious society. This paper discusses the structure of the observational means for the fieldwork of a research which clarifies the relationship between co-presence and social interactions while identifying patterns of co-presence in the dwellings of the contemporary Sri Lankan suburbs. Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural nation. To identify the lifestyle, patterns of co-presence and social interactions of Sinhala Lower middleclass, which occupies the majority of the population and has the highest influence in the social dynamics of Sri Lankan society, this research has mainly focused on domestic places, in which a major part of their life is spent. Due to COVID19 travel restrictions, onsite fieldwork was difficult. Hence two online field methodologies were developed as alternative fieldwork systems in this research, to clarify the patterns of co-presence and feelings related to them in creation of social interactions. The findings clarify that there are four main types of co-presence patterns which are related to functionality and frequency of co-activities of the co-presence occurrences. It was observed that among these types, co-presence occurrences with functional co-activities have less flexibility leading to limited social interactions while co-presence occurrences with non-functional co-activities have more flexibility leading to higher possibilities of social interactions

Predictors of prosocial behavior during the covid-19 national lockdown in italy: Testing the role of psychological sense of community and other community assets

There is growing support for viewing communities as a multilevel construct in which the interdependence between individuals and community systems contributes to the promotion of individual responsibilities in thinking and enacting changes to respond to people\u2019s and community\u2019s needs. However, there is currently scant evidence regarding the influence of psychological sense of community and the role of community assets on prosocial behavior during the COVID-19 national lockdown. The main aim of the current study was to test a conceptual model of community assets as predictors of prosocial behavior during Italy\u2019s COVID-19 national lockdown. A sample of 3,964 Italian adults was involved in the current study. We collected data using an online questionnaire, between April 12 and May 21, 2020, during the nationwide lockdown restrictions. To collect data, we employed convenience and virtual snowball sampling strategies (i.e., email, social networks, and online channels). Using structural equation modeling, we found that prosocial behavior was predicted by sense of community responsibility but not by sense of community. Moreover, sense of community and sense of community responsibility were predicted by community members\u2019 perception of its assets, in particular collective resilience and adequate information. Finally, trust in the institutional response to the pandemic predicted community members\u2019 perception of collective resilience and receiving adequate information through the community. The present study suggests that community qualities, positively perceived by community members, are crucial in promoting prosocial behaviors and producing collective goods during a pandemic

Predictors of prosocial behavior during the COVID-19 national lockdown in Italy: Testing the role of psychological sense of community and other community assets

There is growing support for viewing communities as a multilevel construct in which the interdependence between individuals and community systems contributes to the promotion of individual responsibilities in thinking and enacting changes to respond to people’s and community’s needs. However, there is currently scant evidence regarding the influence of psychological sense of community and the role of community assets on prosocial behavior during the COVID-19 national lockdown. The main aim of the current study was to test a conceptual model of community assets as predictors of prosocial behavior during Italy’s COVID-19 national lockdown. A sample of 3,964 Italian adults was involved in the current study. We collected data using an online questionnaire, between April 12 and May 21, 2020, during the nationwide lockdown restrictions. To collect data, we employed convenience and virtual snowball sampling strategies (i.e., email, social networks, and online channels). Using structural equation modeling, we found that prosocial behavior was predicted by sense of community responsibility but not by sense of community. Moreover, sense of community and sense of community responsibility were predicted by community members’ perception of its assets, in particular collective resilience and adequate information. Finally, trust in the institutional response to the pandemic predicted community members’ perception of collective resilience and receiving adequate information through the community. The present study suggests that community qualities, positively perceived by community members, are crucial in promoting prosocial behaviors and producing collective goods during a pandemic

The Influencer Experience: Identity Performance, Commodification, and Agency in YouTube Influencers

In recent years, the social media usage of young adults has seen exponential growth. This growth, both in numbers of users and time spent on various platforms, creates a greater opportunity to market lifestyles, goods, and behaviors to the masses. Corporations have taken to allocating more time and attention to reach those masses and utilize the quickest means to that end. One example of these means is the influencer, i.e., social media users who monetize their online performances through practices of self-branding, or developing a public image used for commercial and capital gain (Abidin, 2016). In this study, I focus specifically on YouTube influencer. The decision for this was in part because of a lack of relevant research which investigates the platform; current literature focuses most heavily on other social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, or Twitter. In addition, the use of a video-sharing platform in the research allowed the researcher to observe the actual behavior of influencers, which is important to this study. In order to explore the intersection between identity performance, commodification, and agency among YouTube influencers this study looked at agency, a person’s ability to act and make meaning in the environment which they operate. Structuration theory (Giddens, 1984) is the theory that explores the role agency plays in societal processes: It looks at structures, the rules and resources available to people to operate in society, and systems, the repeated interaction of people operating within the structure. Individuals online communicate and internalize their sense of self through interaction, and the uptake in networked communication has complicated the need for impression management. The size and variation among potential audiences online further complicates the expression of self. There exists a perceived blurring of the public and private sphere where users use public channels as if they were private (Marwick & Boyd, 2011). This results in a blurring between the front stage, a concept of the dramaturgical approach (Goffman, 1959) which relates identity performance as a stage where an actor is conscious of being observed and acts according to social conventions, and the backstage, or more private matters shared with select others. Social media complicates the interactions that take place online; this is because its text, image, and video-based representation has accelerated communication among large and differing audiences and changed the nature of interactions between users. These platforms have led to a debate about what this means for our understanding of online agency. This is because social media platforms operate through technological affordances that influence how we view agency, and the understanding that social norms and rules also inform one’s sense of agency online. This begs the question of just how one separates the rules which guide one’s behavior (the structures) from their actual behavior (the system)? Online agency, because social interaction doesn’t exist outside of the structure of platforms online, has proven to effectively collapse systems and structures. Online structures also deeply inform culture, or the shared norms, values, and expectations among people living in a society (Deuze, 2006). Digital culture is considered the democratization of online behavior because people take part in the creation of culture online, but user labor is taken up and commodified by corporations. As algorithms, or “disciplinary apparatuses that prescribe participatory norms” (Cotter, 2018, p. 896), increasingly shape user behavior their power over systems and ultimately the structure come into question. Because influencers are concerned with their visibility and the reach of their capital in the accrual of social and capital gain, they are more likely to choose to alter their identity performance as a result of algorithms constraining their behavior. Authenticity and entrepreneurship were found as core tenets among influencers in performing online (Cotter, 2018). User activity on social media sites has impacted digital culture and resulted in the performance of labor online by users who use their emotions, lives, and subjectivity in service of the platforms (Maragh, 2016). Prior to the birth of Web 2.0., the creation of culture was heavily influenced by culture industries. Horkheimer and Adorno’s (1944) concept of culture industries equates popular culture to a factory producing cultural goods that are taken up by the masses and in their popularization, people drive the consumption of those goods. The tendency to consume goods to convey different elements of one’s identity is also known as commodification, defined as a reflexive project of the self which “is intimately linked to the process of consumption” (Hearns, 2012, p. 25). This means that individuals use consumer goods as signals to convey their identity to others. Influencers thus face the question of which brands to partner with and what that means for their identity performance as influencer habits increasingly move toward the spectacle (Debord, 1984), or the idea that images replace reality and are more ‘real.’ To stand out and retain audience attention influencers must, to some extent, move toward the spectacle. This tension between performance, identity, and the need for capital gain is the focus of this research. This project explored YouTube influencer identity, commodification, and agency through a combination of in-depth, qualitative interviews and a content analysis of nine influencer YouTube videos. Social constructivism allows one to test structuration theory in reality and to render it operational; this is because it seeks to explore the role processes play in society which limit or enhances individual agency, and method. Because both work from an understanding that reality is socially constructed, they are perfectly paired. The data was analyzed from a social constructivist perspective, which privileges the co-creation of reality between researcher and participant, using grounded theory. Results indicated that identity creation online for influencers affords them varying levels of agency. Agency was most constrained with respect to social expectations and enhanced when circumventing the rules of the structure. Influencers expressed enhanced agency when using the structures to effectively “cheat the system.” Further, influencer habits like the “vlog,” video blogs which take viewers through their entire day, result in the perceived blurring between the front stage, the part of yourself you show to others, and the backstage, which consists of more private matters. The final finding highlighted the complication of identity performance online: It revealed the tendency to commodify but the awareness that this was not attractive to audiences. Influencers acknowledged the need to make money sometimes being at odds with audience expectations (Interviewee 1), or those for whom they must perform. This thesis provides a starting point for ongoing research which explores identity performance, commodification, and agency online. The key take-away from this research is that structuration theory no longer holds up in a Web 2.0 context. This research served as a case study to better explore how agency works in an online setting. The findings indicate a necessity for future research to reconsider understandings of structures as these findings highlight the ability for structures to exist outside of knowledgeability. It also highlights a need for more research which explores how influencers with varying degrees of success navigate various other platforms. This research underlines the need to continually question the democratization of online activity: One is led to believe that influencers are in control of their activity online but this study’s findings on agency reveal that this is instead multi-faceted and ever-changing