Spinal Cord Injury Causes Sustained Disruption of the Blood-Testis Barrier in the Rat

There is a high incidence of infertility in males following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Quality of semen is frequently poor in these patients, but the pathophysiological mechanism(s) causing this are not known. Blood-testis barrier (BTB) integrity following SCI has not previously been examined. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of spinal contusion injury on the BTB in the rat. 63 adult, male Sprague Dawley rats received SCI (n = 28), laminectomy only (n = 7) or served as uninjured, age-matched controls (n = 28). Using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI), BTB permeability to the vascular contrast agent gadopentate dimeglumine (Gd) was assessed at either 72 hours-, or 10 months post-SCI. DCE-MRI data revealed that BTB permeability to Gd was greater than controls at both 72 h and 10 mo post-SCI. Histological evaluation of testis tissue showed increased BTB permeability to immunoglobulin G at both 72 hours- and 10 months post-SCI, compared to age-matched sham-operated and uninjured controls. Tight junctional integrity within the seminiferous epithelium was assessed; at 72 hours post-SCI, decreased expression of the tight junction protein occludin was observed. Presence of inflammation in the testes was also examined. High expression of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta was detected in testis tissue. CD68+ immune cell infiltrate and mast cells were also detected within the seminiferous epithelium of both acute and chronic SCI groups but not in controls. In addition, extensive germ cell apoptosis was observed at 72 h post-SCI. Based on these results, we conclude that SCI is followed by compromised BTB integrity by as early as 72 hours post-injury in rats and is accompanied by a substantial immune response within the testis. Furthermore, our results indicate that the BTB remains compromised and testis immune cell infiltration persists for months after the initial injury

Improved Techniques for Acquisition and Analysis of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Detecting Vascular Permeability in the Central Nervous System

Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) is a noninvasive technique for quantitative assessment of the integrity of blood-brain barrier and blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) in the presence of central nervous system pathologies. However, the results of DCE-MRI show substantial variability. The high variability can be caused by a number of factors including inaccurate T1 estimation, insufficient temporal resolution and poor contrast-to-noise ratio. My thesis work is to develop improved methods to reduce the variability of DCE-MRI results. To obtain fast and accurate T1 map, the Look-Locker acquisition technique was implemented with a novel and truly centric k-space segmentation scheme. In addition, an original multi-step curve fitting procedure was developed to increase the accuracy of T1 estimation. A view sharing acquisition method was implemented to increase temporal resolution, and a novel normalization method was introduced to reduce image artifacts. Finally, a new clustering algorithm was developed to reduce apparent noise in the DCE-MRI data. The performance of these proposed methods was verified by simulations and phantom studies. As part of this work, the proposed techniques were applied to an in vivo DCE-MRI study of experimental spinal cord injury (SCI). These methods have shown robust results and allow quantitative assessment of regions with very low vascular permeability. In conclusion, applications of the improved DCE-MRI acquisition and analysis methods developed in this thesis work can improve the accuracy of the DCE-MRI results

High Resolution Vascular Imaging of the Rat Spine using Liposomal Blood Pool MR Agent

High resolution, vascular magnetic resonance imaging of the spine region in small animals poses several challenges. The small anatomical features, extravascular diffusion, and the low signal-to-noise ratio limit the use of conventional contrast agents. We hypothesize that a long circulating, intravascular liposomal-encapsulated MR contrast agent (liposomal-Gd) would facilitate visualization of small anatomical features of the perispinal vasculature not visible with conventional contrast agent (Gd-DTPA)

Dynamics of myeloid cell infiltration and blood-spinal cord barrier disruption in a murine model of multiple sclerosis

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2013-2014.La rupture de la barrière hémoencéphalique (BHE) ainsi que l’infiltration cellulaire sont des évènements pathophysiologiques caractéristiques de la sclérose en plaques et de son modèle animal, l’encéphalomyélite autoimmune expérimentale (EAE). Cependant, leur relation avec l’évolution de l’EAE est obscure, notamment car les préparations histologiques standards recquièrent le sacrifice des animaux et nous privent d’informations cruciales quant à l’initiation, au développement et à la progression de la maladie. Nous utilisons le modèle EAE chez la lignée de souris lys-GFP ki, chez laquelle les cellules myéloïdes (i.e. neutrophiles et monocytes) expriment eGFP. De l’imagerie intravitale est effectuée à des moments précis, ce qui permet l’étude de l’infiltration cellulaire en plus de l’évaluation de l’intégrité de la barrière hémo-encéphalique (BHE) au cours de la pathologie. Les séances d’imagerie non-terminales offrent un contexte temporel considérable, puisqu’il est possible de suivre le développement de la maladie chez un animal qui a été précédemment imagé. La première étape a donc consisté à établir que la chirurgie et la séance d’imagerie n’avaient aucune influence sur le développement de l’EAE chez les animaux expérimentaux. Les résultats obtenus à l’aide d’imagerie intravitale tendent à démontrer qu’un affaiblissement de la BHE envers les molécules de petite taille (760 Da) est corrélé à l’infiltration de cellules GFP-positive dans la moelle épinière. Il est d’autant plus intéressant de constater que cette invasion cellulaire arrive en même temps que l’apparition des symptômes cliniques chez les animaux atteints d’EAE. Nous avançons l’hypothèse que les neutrophiles sont les cellules myéloïdes responsables de brèches initiales dans la BHE, qui influençent son intégrité aux stades précoces de la maladie. Des expériences de déplétion envers les neutrophiles ont donc été effectuées chez des animaux EAE afin de confirmer notre hypothèse. Les résultats suggèrent que les neutrophiles influencent l’initiation de la maladie et sa sévérité totale, en plus d’être intimement liés à l’état de la BHE tôt dans la pathologie.Blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption and immune cell infiltration are early pathophysiological hallmarks of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Their relationship with the course of EAE remains unclear, however, notably because histological tissue preparations involve sacrifice and inherently result in the loss of crucial information regarding the initiation or development and progression of the disease. We use the EAE model in the lys-GFP ki mouse strain, in which blood-borne myeloid cells (i.e. neutrophils and monocytes) express eGFP. Intravital two-photon microscopy is performed at selected time points, enabling the investigation of cellular infiltration together with the assessment of the blood- barrier (BBB) integrity over the course of the pathology. Non-terminal imaging sessions offer extensive temporal context as it is possible to follow the development of the disease in an animal which has been previously imaged. One can appreciate the advantage of such a method as it is possible to relate, in the same animal, previous observations with clinical outcome. The first step thus consisted in establishing that the surgery and imaging session did not affect the development of EAE in experimental animals. Results obtained demonstrate that the permeability of the BBB to small molecular tracers (760 Da) correlates with the infiltration of GFP-positive myeloid cells into the spinal cord parenchyma. Interestingly, this cellular invasion is reminiscent of the appearance of clinical symptoms displayed by EAE animals. We put forward the hypothesis that neutrophils are the myeloid cells responsible for initial breaches in the BBB, influencing the latter’s integrity at early stages of the disease. Neutrophil depletion experiments have thus been performed in EAE mice in order to confirm this hypothesis. Results suggest that neutrophils influence the initiation and total severity of the disease, as well as being intimately linked to the status of the BBB early in the pathology

Late normal tissue response in the rat spinal cord after carbon ion irradiation

Background: The present work summarizes the research activities on radiation-induced late effects in the rat spinal cord carried out within the “clinical research group ion beam therapy” funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG, KFO 214). Methods and materials: Dose–response curves for the endpoint radiation-induced myelopathy were determined at 6 different positions (LET 16–99 keV/μm) within a 6 cm spread-out Bragg peak using either 1, 2 or 6 fractions of carbon ions. Based on the tolerance dose TD50 of carbon ions and photons, the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) was determined and compared with predictions of the local effect model (LEM I and IV). Within a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based study the temporal development of radiation-induced changes in the spinal cord was characterized. To test the protective potential of the ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme)-inhibitor ramipril™, an additional dose–response experiment was performed. Results: The RBE-values increased with LET and the increase was found to be larger for smaller fractional doses. Benchmarking the RBE-values as predicted by LEM I and LEM IV with the measured data revealed that LEM IV is more accurate in the high-LET, while LEM I is more accurate in the low-LET region. Characterization of the temporal development of radiation-induced changes with MRI demonstrated a shorter latency time for carbon ions, reflected on the histological level by an increased vessel perforation after carbon ion as compared to photon irradiations. For the ACE-inhibitor ramipril™, a mitigative rather than protective effect was found. Conclusions: This comprehensive study established a large and consistent RBE data base for late effects in the rat spinal cord after carbon ion irradiation which will be further extended in ongoing studies. Using MRI, an extensive characterization of the temporal development of radiation-induced alterations was obtained. The reduced latency time for carbon ions is expected to originate from a dynamic interaction of various complex pathological processes. A dominant observation after carbon ion irradiation was an increase in vessel perforation preferentially in the white matter. To enable a targeted pharmacological intervention more details of the molecular pathways, responsible for the development of radiation-induced myelopathy are required

An In Vivo Duo-color Method for Imaging Vascular Dynamics Following Contusive Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes significant vascular disruption at the site of injury. Vascular pathology occurs immediately after SCI and continues throughout the acute injury phase. In fact, endothelial cells appear to be the first to die after a contusive SCI. The early vascular events, including increased permeability of the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), induce vasogenic edema and contribute to detrimental secondary injury events caused by complex injury mechanisms. Targeting the vascular disruption, therefore, could be a key strategy to reduce secondary injury cascades that contribute to histological and functional impairments after SCI. Previous studies were mostly performed on postmortem samples and were unable to capture the dynamic changes of the vascular network. In this study, we have developed an in vivo duo-color two-photon imaging method to monitor acute vascular dynamic changes following contusive SCI. This approach allows detecting blood flow, vessel diameter, and other vascular pathologies at various sites of the same rat pre- and post-injury. Overall, this method provides an excellent venue for investigating vascular dynamics

18F-FAC PET Visualizes Brain-Infiltrating Leukocytes in a Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis.

Brain-infiltrating leukocytes contribute to multiple sclerosis (MS) and autoimmune encephalomyelitis and likely play a role in traumatic brain injury, seizure, and stroke. Brain-infiltrating leukocytes are also primary targets for MS disease-modifying therapies. However, no method exists for noninvasively visualizing these cells in a living organism. 1-(2'-deoxy-2'-18F-fluoroarabinofuranosyl) cytosine (18F-FAC) is a PET radiotracer that measures deoxyribonucleoside salvage and accumulates preferentially in immune cells. We hypothesized that 18F-FAC PET could noninvasively image brain-infiltrating leukocytes. Methods: Healthy mice were imaged with 18F-FAC PET to quantify if this radiotracer crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a mouse disease model with brain-infiltrating leukocytes. To determine whether 18F-FAC accumulates in brain-infiltrating leukocytes, EAE mice were analyzed with 18F-FAC PET, digital autoradiography, and immunohistochemistry, and deoxyribonucleoside salvage activity in brain-infiltrating leukocytes was analyzed ex vivo. Fingolimod-treated EAE mice were imaged with 18F-FAC PET to assess if this approach can monitor the effect of an immunomodulatory drug on brain-infiltrating leukocytes. PET scans of individuals injected with 2-chloro-2'-deoxy-2'-18F-fluoro-9-β-d-arabinofuranosyl-adenine (18F-CFA), a PET radiotracer that measures deoxyribonucleoside salvage in humans, were analyzed to evaluate whether 18F-CFA crosses the human BBB. Results: 18F-FAC accumulates in the healthy mouse brain at levels similar to 18F-FAC in the blood (2.54 ± 0.2 and 3.04 ± 0.3 percentage injected dose per gram, respectively) indicating that 18F-FAC crosses the BBB. EAE mice accumulate 18F-FAC in the brain at 180% of the levels of control mice. Brain 18F-FAC accumulation localizes to periventricular regions with significant leukocyte infiltration, and deoxyribonucleoside salvage activity is present at similar levels in brain-infiltrating T and innate immune cells. These data suggest that 18F-FAC accumulates in brain-infiltrating leukocytes in this model. Fingolimod-treated EAE mice accumulate 18F-FAC in the brain at 37% lower levels than control-treated EAE mice, demonstrating that 18F-FAC PET can monitor therapeutic interventions in this mouse model. 18F-CFA accumulates in the human brain at 15% of blood levels (0.08 ± 0.01 and 0.54 ± 0.07 SUV, respectively), indicating that 18F-CFA does not cross the BBB in humans. Conclusion: 18F-FAC PET can visualize brain-infiltrating leukocytes in a mouse MS model and can monitor the response of these cells to an immunomodulatory drug. Translating this strategy into humans will require exploring additional radiotracers

The consequence of endothelial remodelling on the blood spinal cord barrier and nociception

Nociception is a fundamental acute protective mechanism that prevents harm to an organism. Understanding the integral processes that control nociceptive processing are fundamental to our appreciation of which cellular and molecular features underlie this process. There is an extensive understanding of how sensory neurons interpret differing sensory modalities and intensities. However, it is widely appreciated that the sensory neurons do not act alone. These work in harmony with inflammatory and vascular systems to modulate pain perception. The spinal cord has an extensive interaction with the capillary network in the form of a blood spinal cord barrier to ensure homeostatic control of the spinal cord neuron milieu. However, there is an extensive appreciation that disturbances in the blood spinal cord barrier contribute to the onset of chronic pain. Enhanced vascular permeability and impaired blood perfusion have both been highlighted as contributors to chronic pain manifestation. Here, we discuss the evidence that demonstrates alterations in the blood spinal cord barrier influences nociceptive processing and perception of pain

Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier: Its Role in Spinal Disorders and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies

The blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) has been long thought of as a functional equivalent to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), restricting blood flow into the spinal cord. The spinal cord is supported by various disc tissues that provide agility and has different local immune responses compared to the brain. Though physiologically, structural components of the BSCB and BBB share many similarities, the clinical landscape significantly differs. Thus, it is crucial to understand the composition of BSCB and also to establish the cause–effect relationship with aberrations and spinal cord dysfunctions. Here, we provide a descriptive analysis of the anatomy, current techniques to assess the impairment of BSCB, associated risk factors and impact of spinal disorders such as spinal cord injury (SCI), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), peripheral nerve injury (PNI), ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI), degenerative cervical myelopathy (DCM), multiple sclerosis (MS), spinal cavernous malformations (SCM) and cancer on BSCB dysfunction. Along with diagnostic and mechanistic analyses, we also provide an up-to-date account of available therapeutic options for BSCB repair. We emphasize the need to address BSCB as an individual entity and direct future research towards it.</jats:p

In vivo imaging of blood-brain barrier disruption in a multiple sclerosis animal model

La sclérose en plaques est une maladie inflammatoire du système nerveux central qui touche beaucoup de jeunes adultes dans le monde entier. Malgré les efforts de recherche, la cause demeure inconnue. Afin de développer de meilleurs traitements et de trouver un remède, les modèles animaux sont utilisés pour identifier des biomarqueurs cellulaires. La caractérisation de ces modèles est essentielle afin de bien transposer les résultats à la maladie humaine et de tester de nouveaux médicaments. Cette thèse est le résultat d'un projet de maîtrise au Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec (CRIUSMQ) qui visait à étudier la barrière hématoencéphalique en tant que biomarqueur possible chez un modèle animal de la sclérose en plaques. Le chapitre 1 présente les différents thèmes abordés dans ce projet. Les chapitres 2, 3 et 4 se concentrent sur les méthodes choisies, tandis que le chapitre 5 présente les résultats obtenus.Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system that affects many young adults worldwide. Despite research efforts, the cause of the disease remains unknown. In order to develop better therapies and ultimately find a cure, animal models are used to identify cellular biomarkers. Characterizing these models is essential in order to properly relate findings to the human disease and test possible medications. This thesis is the result of a three-year Master's project at Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec (CRIUSMQ) that aimed to study the blood-brain barrier as a possible biomarker of disease pathology in a multiple sclerosis animal model. Chapter 1 introduces the different themes addressed in this project. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 focus on the materials and methods chosen, while chapter 5 presents the results obtained. These findings are discussed in chapter 6