FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF A MOBILE MICROGRID DESIGN TO SUPPORT DOD ENERGY RESILIENCE GOALS

This research investigates the feasibility of using mobile microgrids to increase energy resilience on Department of Defense installations. The primary question examined is whether a standardized mobile microgrid, constrained within an ISO TriCon container, can provide the necessary power for small critical sites with an average 10 kW load with similar resilience to a customized single load microgrid or emergency backup generator. Key assumptions for this research are that power outages may be accompanied by a fuel-constrained environment (e.g., natural disaster that restricts fuel transport), that an existing installation microgrid is in place, and that the risk of outages does not warrant the development of redundant customized single load microgrids for each critical load. Feasibility was examined by constructing an architectural design that attempts to find a satisfactory combination of commercial off-the-shelf components for battery energy storage, photovoltaic power, and generator power within the constraints of an 8 ft x 6.5 ft x 8 ft shipping container. That design was modeled and simulated over a two-week period using Global Horizontal Index solar irradiation data, and a randomized average 10 kW load. Results of the model were used to analyze the feasibility of the system to meet the load while reducing dependency on fuel resources. Trade-offs between a customized single load microgrid and standardized mobile microgrid are discussed.Major, United States ArmyApproved for public release. Distribution is unlimited

How technological frames transform: the case of the global microgrid industry

This thesis applies three distinct technology-centred perspectives to explore the mechanisms through which an emergent, complex technology gains acceptance. I develop innovative models to improve our understanding of the processes by which technologies are adopted and institutionalised. This work was motivated by studies that have addressed criticisms to give technology a more central role within the management and organisation science literature and by looking at solutions to the far-reaching consequences of the current energy transition and related problems. The main setting is the global energy sector with a focus on microgrids, which are self-sufficient energy systems. Considering the significance of microgrids for the transformation towards a more sustainable energy sector, they have only received limited attention outside the technical literature. Paper 1 is an in-depth industry study of the emergence of the energy sector and microgrid technologies. It provides the reader with a deeper understanding of microgrid technologies and the markets through which they are bought, sold, and eventually spread. The study integrates the global microgrid industry into the historical context of energy transitions and decentralization and elaborates the technology’s relevance in these processes and what tensions exist that might hinder its adoption. The paper’s main contribution is to provide a novel perspective on the energy sector and microgrids reflecting recent developments by considering a wide spectrum of data sources. The paper analyses over 245 cited sources reaching from academic journal papers to practitioner industry proceedings, specialist industry publications, news websites and forums, consulting and research reports, as well as company white papers and websites. The engagement with industry experts revealed that non-standardization of microgrid technologies is a key concern. This led to the second study to explore how the interpretation of a technology’s capabilities, focusing on standardizability, changes over time and affects the technology’s trajectory. Paper 2 extends prior research by introducing the concept of complexity differentials, which describe the difference between the complexity of a technology and the complexity of the technology’s environment, to technological frames. Technological frames were introduced as a concept for understanding how organisational stakeholders evaluate and experience technologies. I argue that previous research has not sufficiently examined the role of complexity differentials in determining the usefulness of technological frames. The two-year study of the emerging microgrid industry examines technological frames dynamics by considering the role of complexity. It emphasises the importance of how novel technologies are framed as large deviations between the framing and technology destabilise the frame and thus reduce the understanding and adoption of a technology. I find that technological frames that extensively deviate in complexity from the technology they describe become instable over time, ultimately leading to their transformation or overall replacement. This perspective adds to the literature that examines the limitations of frames such as encouraging overconfidence in a technology, inhibit learning and problem-solving processes, or reinforcing unreflective reliance on established assumptions. The processes studied in paper 2 unveiled that our understanding of how technologies become accepted often does not include the materiality of the technology as a central factor. This led to the third paper, that aims to give the technology itself a more central role in the proposed technology institutionalisation process model. Paper 3 is a conceptual study in form of a multi-level model of technology institutionalisation incorporating micro, meso, and macro-lenses to better explain how novel technologies become widely accepted and taken-for-granted. The paper presents a conceptual model to guide future studies of the technology institutionalisation process. In arguing for a more technology-centred approach to investigate the institutionalisation process of novel technologies, the study conceptualises technology as an independent institution. It addresses the lack of technology-focused studies within institutional theory, as well as the call for multi-level models to explain the technology institutionalisation process. The proposed multi-level model of technology institutionalisation emphasises that micro and macro-level of analysis should be regarded as complementary to each other and that both technological and organisational field-level mechanisms act as moderating forces within the technology institutionalisation process

A methodology for cooperation between electric utilities and consumers for microgrid utilization based on a systems engineering approach

In recent years, the energy market has experienced important challenges in its structure and requirements of its actors, such as the necessity for more reliable electric service, energy efficiency, environmental care practices, and the incorporation of decentralized power generation based on distributed energy resources (DER). Given this context, microgrids offer several advantages to the grid and its actors. However, few microgrid projects have been implemented, and the participation of electric utilities is lower than the expected. Hence, this research explores how electric utility - customer interactions can accommodate mutual benefits for both parties through the proposal of a Microgrid Reference Methodology (MRM) that guides the cooperation of these actors for future microgrid projects. For this research, an understanding of the microgrid system was imperative; hence, the interests and concerns of electric utilities and industrial customers were determined via questionnaires, interviews, and a literature review of specialized articles, books, and magazines. In addition, the MRM development was based on different frameworks and concepts from the fields of Systems Engineering, System of Systems, Management Science, and Infrastructure Architectures. The proposed MRM uses a four-level microgrid system in which the delta (business) level is added to the other three levels that are traditionally analyzed in microgrid design and modeling. The steps and processes necessary to determine the actors in the system and their interests, goals, criteria, and factors are exemplified with a generic case study, in which the proposed MRM evaluates the impact of different alternatives on the objectives of both parties. In addition, it was possible to identify external factors that can be influenced by other actors, such as regulators and government, to incentivize the implementation of microgrid projects

Microgrids and EU law:Three Microgrid models to solve one regulatory puzzle

Microgrids are decentralised electricity systems that can operate independently of the main electricity network, and which have the potential to contribute to the energy transition towards a more sustainable energy mix. However, the integration of the system in the EU electricity market is not regulated and the resulting uncertainty discourages the system's development. This article provides the first step towards increased legal certainty for microgrid users and initiators by developing a regulatory approach based on three different microgrid ownership and operation models. If the existing rules in EU energy law allow for some flexibility to include electricity household consumers under the provisions of Closed Distribution Systems and allow for Citizens Energy Communities to manage part of the distribution system, the legal framework does offer possibilities to regulate microgrids. Nevertheless, many legal questions remain, in particular regarding responsibilities of active customers, consumption management, and regulation of flexibility services. In addition, the regulatory approach towards microgrids depends on EU Member States granting energy communities the right to manage part of the distribution network, which now depends on the discretion of the Member States. This discretionary nature should be reconsidered given the significant potential for local initiatives to contribute to the energy transition.</p

Scalable pathways to net zero carbon in the UK higher education sector: A systematic review of smart energy systems in university campuses

The following literature review sets out the state-of-the-art research relating to smart building principles and smart energy systems in UK higher education university campuses. The paper begins by discussing the carbon impact of the sector and the concept of ‘smart campuses' applied to the sector in the context of decarbonisation. Opportunities and challenges associated with integrating smart energy systems at the university campus from a policy and technical perspective are then discussed. This is followed by a review of building and campus-scale frameworks supporting a transition to smart energy campuses using the BPIE’ Smart Buildings' framework. The paper finds that the complexity of achieving net-zero carbon emissions for new and existing higher education buildings and energy systems can be addressed with the adoption of ‘smart building principles' and integrating 'smartness' into their energy systems. Several universities in the UK and worldwide are integrating smart services and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in their operations following the smart campus premise. At the building level, existing frameworks often create conceptual roadmaps for the smart building premise or propose technical implementation and assessment methods. At university campus scale, implementation typically comes through single-vector interventions, and only few examples exist that propose a multi-vector approach. Comparisons of the drivers and the decision-making process are made, with carbon and cost reduction being the most prominent from leveraging distributed energy generation. Therefore, this study identified the need for a comprehensive technical or policy framework to drive the uptake of the smart energy campus, aiming to bring together the holistic value of smart energy campuses

Design and implementation of rural microgrids : Laguna Grande case study

In 2015 the United Nations established the 17 Sustainable Development Goals: a set of interrelated objectives and a guide to reach a more sustainable and higher quality future for all humanity. The goals were set with a timeline for 2030, the seventh goal refers specifically to the universal access to “affordable and clean energy”. Taking account the considerable fraction of world population that do not have access to electricity, especially in rural areas, this goal still requires a great effort and investment. Rural hybrid microgrids, that integrate and manage solar and wind energy resources to provide electric service to remote locations, are a promising solution to reach this “last mile” scenario. However, as is reported in the literature, there is still scarce information about the performance of these systems based on measured data obtained in real working field conditions. This work aims to contribute to this aspect mainly by analyzing the data obtained in the 9 kW Laguna Grande community hybrid microgrid, which is cooperative since 2016 in the coast of Perú, and has been equipped with sensors and data acquisition systems that measure and register solar radiation, wind speed, temperatures, and all the relevant electric parameters. As a preliminary study, the rural electrification gap and costs are assessed, as well as the availability of solar and wind resources in the area of interest. A literature and state of the art review is undertaken followed by the definition of the microgrid concept and the different ways in which a rural microgrid can be configured. The particular way in which the Laguna Grande microgrid is configured and instrumented is described. Measured meteorological conditions as solar radiation, wind speed and temperature are analyzed and related to the power generated by the photovoltaic arrays and wind turbine. This in turn leads to a balance with respect to the power delivered to the community and consequently to the voltage levels of the battery bank. Battery dynamics concepts are used to determine the depth of discharge (DOD) of the batteries in a real time regime. The statistics of the DOD values allows for the duration of the battery to be estimated which is a key factor to the microgrid economics and reliability. A parametric study is done to assess the effect of varying battery size on the technical and economic performance of the microgrid; similarly, with generating capacity in both photovoltaic arrays and wind turbines. Complementarily, a commercial software is used to optimize the microgrid, introducing state of the art components as lithium-ion batteries, power electronics and photovoltaic modules for a future upgrade. Finally, this study would not be complete without emphasizing the importance and adequate consideration of the human factor for the success and long-term sustainability of rural electrification projects.En el año 2015 las Naciones Unidas estableció los 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible: un conjunto de objetivos interrelacionados y una guía para alcanzar un futuro más sostenible y de mayor calidad para toda la humanidad. Las metas se establecieron con una línea de tiempo para el 2030, la séptima meta se refiere específicamente al acceso universal a “energía limpia y asequible”. Teniendo en cuenta la fracción considerable de la población mundial que no tiene acceso a la electricidad, especialmente en las zonas rurales, este objetivo aún requiere un gran esfuerzo e inversión. Las microrredes híbridas rurales, que integran y gestionan los recursos de energía solar y eólica para proporcionar servicio eléctrico a lugares remotos, son una solución prometedora para llegar a este escenario de “última milla”. Sin embargo, como se reporta en la literatura, aún existe poca información sobre el desempeño de estos sistemas basada en datos medidos y obtenidos en condiciones operativas, reales de campo. Este trabajo busca contribuir en este aspecto principalmente mediante el análisis de los datos obtenidos en la microrred híbrida comunitaria de 9 kW en Laguna Grande, que está operativa desde 2016 en la costa de Perú. Esta microrred ha sido equipada con sensores y sistemas de adquisición de datos que miden y registran la energía solar, radiación, velocidad del viento, temperaturas y todos los parámetros eléctricos relevantes. Como estudio preliminar se evalúa la brecha y costos de electrificación rural, así como la disponibilidad de recurso solar y eólico en la zona de interés. Se realiza una revisión bibliográfica y del estado del arte, seguida de la definición del concepto de microrred y las diferentes formas en que se puede configurar una microrred rural. Se describe la forma particular en que se configura e instrumenta la microrred de Laguna Grande. Las condiciones meteorológicas medidas como la radiación solar, la velocidad del viento y la temperatura se analizan y relacionan con la energía generada por los arreglos fotovoltaicos y la turbina eólica. Esto a su vez conduce a realizar un balance con respecto a la potencia entregada a la comunidad y consecuentemente a los niveles de voltaje del banco de baterías. Los conceptos de dinámica de batería se utilizan para determinar la profundidad de descarga (DOD) de las baterías en un régimen a tiempo real. Las estadísticas de los valores DOD permiten estimar la duración de la batería, lo cual es un factor clave para la economía y confiabilidad de la microrred. Se realiza un estudio paramétrico para evaluar el efecto de variar el tamaño de la batería en el desempeño técnico y económico de la microrred; de igual forma, con la capacidad de generación tanto en arreglos fotovoltaicos como turbinas eólicas. Complementariamente, se utiliza un software comercial para optimizar la microrred, introduciendo componentes de última generación como baterías de iones de litio, electrónica de potencia y módulos fotovoltaicos para una futura actualización. Finalmente, este estudio no estaría completo sin enfatizar la importancia y la adecuada consideración del factor humano para el éxito y la sostenibilidad a largo plazo de los proyectos de electrificación rural.Postprint (published version