European Union Timber Regulation Impact on International Timber Markets

The trade of illegal timber, often from illegal logging, has severe environmental, social and economic consequences. The EU’s response to this problem came with the Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Action Plan, with its specific goal to end illegal logging, thereby improving sustainability of forest resources. In March 2013, an additional step was taken by implementing the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR). The EUTR requires proof of timber’s origin and legality to ensure that no illegal timber is imported into the EU. To this end the EU intends to block imports of any wood or wood product which comes from unknown sources. Certification of sustainable forest management will help EU importers minimize risk, which is an essential part of their required due diligence system. Monitoring organizations are established to assist trade associations and businesses to construct comprehensive due diligence systems. National competent authorities are designated to follow the trade of the new FLEGT-licensed timber and timber products. In the first year of the EUTR there are positive impacts, of which the most important is awareness of the disastrous situation with illegal logging, driven by exports of illegal timber. Another positive development is tropical timber exporters documenting the legality of their wood exports. Yet another positive feature is establishment of due diligence systems by EU importers. However, there are considerable problems for ensuring legal trade; for example the lack of comprehensive documentation of origin and legality. Analysis of recent trends establishes changes in the European timber trade in terms of sourcing, substitution, diversion to less-demanding countries. Short-term forecasts of market trends and changes will enable further policy assessment to achieve the objectives of improved legality in international timber markets.JRC.H.3-Forest Resources and Climat

Isothermal microwave biology : catalysis and fermentation

This thesis looks directly into the controversial subject of the microwave field effect by the production of a versatile prototype isothermal microwave reactor for the investigation of enzymatic and microbiological reactions. The observed results from the prototype reactor and experiments conducted conclude that there is a nonthermal, nonlinear response between the exposure microwave power and rate and yield of cellulose saccharification. The nature of the nonthermal response is controversial and may be dependent on the definition of "nonthermal,' leading to ambiguity of exact mechanism. Enzymatic and microbial conversion of cellulosic material to ethanol is a highly desirable industrial process. Whether the demand is for the mitigation of climate change, political obligations or energy independence, the use of arable land for energy crops limits the available glucose carbon sources for conversion to bioproducts. To prevent this limitation, cellulose (~-l,4-linked glucose polymers) are touted as the "silver bullet" to prevent carbon exhaustion or impinging on food crops. The technical constraint for the industrialization of cellulose based processing is the rate limitation in the cellulase enzymatic action on cellulose. The enzyme rate is limited by feedback cycles and limited mechanical freedom, therefore a relatively high enzyme concentration is required to speed up the process. To date, the associated enzyme production costs and infrastructure prevents bulk volume exploitation. Biomolecular advances (amino acid substitutions, recombination of expression vectors etc) have gone some way to increase either enzymatic rate or enzyme concentration. The work presented in this thesis differs by increasing the rate of the enzyme without molecular modification. Using a microwave field, the work presented shows that by separating the system into its base units, irradiation of the enzyme/substrate complex in an aqueous environment can increase both the initial enzyme rate and the saccharification yield without alteration of the temperature set point. This study shows that the rate increase is not proportional to the microwave field power. An optimal power in each study is either found or suggested. The results cited show that in the three systems (Endoglucanase and cellobiohydrolase with cellulose, endoglucanase and cellobiohydrolase and ~- glucosidase with cellulose, and ~-glucosidase with cellobiose) the initial rates can be increased by 201 %, 65.5% and 69% respectively. In the total hydrolytic process (endoglucanase and cellobiohydrolase and ~-glucosidase on a cellulose substrate) the final glucose yield was increased by 43% in comparison to the conventional thermal control reaction. This is shown in Figure 1. 10.000 1 9.000 1 8.000 j 7.000 6.000 o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 I I 1 I U 5.000 r:: o u 4.000 3.000 2.000 j i t t , f 1.000 0.000 Time (hours) =->=OOOW Glucose' ?012W Glucose ?p025W Glucose ~050W Glucose ?075W Glucose Figure 1. Microwave irradiated "cellulase" enzymes with cellulose substrate I For development into an industrial system and looking towards simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was subjected to irradiated microwave fermentations on a glucose substrate. Although inconclusive in terms of rate increase, cell density 1 was comparable across the power range showing that the irradiation does not have a derogatory effect. ! The natural evolution of the conclusions drawn would be development of the system into a SSF or SSCF configuration for bio-product formation is possible with irradiation up to SOW. ii The novelty of the experiments conducted is twofold. Firstly, the reactor has been designed to ensure that the microwave irradiation is independent of the bulk temperature therefore allowing the exploration of the microwave field effect independently to the thermal effect. Secondly, the microwave source is a continuous microwave irradiation (none pulse irradiation) ensuring that the reaction is subjected to the microwave field for the entire reaction

Production of Biofuels and Numerical Modeling of Chemical Combustion Systems

Biofuels have recently attracted a lot of attention, mainly as alternative fuels for applications in energy generation and transportation. The utilization of biofuels in such controlled combustion processes has the great advantage of not depleting the limited resources of fossil fuels while leading to emissions of greenhouse gases and smoke particles similar to those of fossil fuels. On the other hand, a vast amount of biofuels are subjected to combustion in small-scale processes, such as for heating and cooking in residential dwellings, as well as in agricultural operations, such as crop residue removal and land clearing. In addition, large amounts of biomass are consumed annually during forest and savanna fires in many parts of the world. These types of burning processes are typically uncontrolled and unregulated. Consequently, the emissions from these processes may be larger compared to industrial-type operations. Aside from direct effects on human health, especially due to a sizeable fraction of the smoke emissions remaining inside residential homes, the smoke particles and gases released from uncontrolled biofuel combustion impose significant effects on the regional and global climate. Estimates have shown the majority of carbonaceous airborne particulate matter to be derived from the combustion of biofuels and biomass. “Production of Biofuels and Numerical Modelling of Chemical Combustion Systems” comprehensively overviews and includes in-depth technical research papers addressing recent progress in biofuel production and combustion processes. To be specific, this book contains sixteen high-quality studies (fifteen research papers and one review paper) addressing techniques and methods for bioenergy and biofuel production as well as challenges in the broad area of process modelling and control in combustion processes

Holistic biomimicry: a biologically inspired approach to environmentally benign engineering

Humanity's activities increasingly threaten Earth's richness of life, of which mankind is a part. As part of the response, the environmentally conscious attempt to engineer products, processes and systems that interact harmoniously with the living world. Current environmental design guidance draws upon a wealth of experiences with the products of engineering that damaged humanity's environment. Efforts to create such guidelines inductively attempt to tease right action from examination of past mistakes. Unfortunately, avoidance of past errors cannot guarantee environmentally sustainable designs in the future. One needs to examine and understand an example of an environmentally sustainable, complex, multi-scale system to engineer designs with similar characteristics. This dissertation benchmarks and evaluates the efficacy of guidance from one such environmentally sustainable system resting at humanity's doorstep - the biosphere. Taking a holistic view of biomimicry, emulation of and inspiration by life, this work extracts overarching principles of life from academic life science literature using a sociological technique known as constant comparative method. It translates these principles into bio-inspired sustainable engineering guidelines. During this process, it identifies physically rooted measures and metrics that link guidelines to engineering applications. Qualitative validation for principles and guidelines takes the form of review by biology experts and comparison with existing environmentally benign design and manufacturing guidelines. Three select bio-inspired guidelines at three different organizational scales of engineering interest are quantitatively validated. Physical experiments with self-cleaning surfaces quantify the potential environmental benefits generated by applying the first, sub-product scale guideline. An interpretation of a metabolically rooted guideline applied at the product / organism organizational scale is shown to correlate with existing environmental metrics and predict a sustainability threshold. Finally, design of a carpet recycling network illustrates the quantitative environmental benefits one reaps by applying the third, multi-facility scale bio-inspired sustainability guideline. Taken as a whole, this work contributes (1) a set of biologically inspired sustainability principles for engineering, (2) a translation of these principles into measures applicable to design, (3) examples demonstrating a new, holistic form of biomimicry and (4) a deductive, novel approach to environmentally benign engineering. Life, the collection of processes that tamed and maintained themselves on planet Earth's once hostile surface, long ago confronted and solved the fundamental problems facing all organisms. Through this work, it is hoped that humanity has taken one small step toward self-mastery, thus drawing closer to a solution to the latest problem facing all organisms.Ph.D.Committee Chair: Bert Bras; Committee Member: David Rosen; Committee Member: Dayna Baumeister; Committee Member: Janet Allen; Committee Member: Jeannette Yen; Committee Member: Matthew Realf

Étude de la variabilité de la couleur du bois de bouleau à papier (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) et analyse de son impact sur la qualité et la valeur des sciages

Le bouleau à papier (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) est une alternative intéressante aux espèces nobles traditionnellement utilisées par l’industrie du sciage des bois feuillus québécoise et canadienne. Sa transformation en produits d’apparence confère une importance à la couleur de son bois. Son bois d’aubier de couleur pâle et homogène contraste avec la présence d’un bois de cœur traumatique, d’un brun-rougeâtre plus foncé. L’objectif principal de ce projet de doctorat était de déterminer la variabilité intra-spécifique de la coloration du bois de bouleau à papier, de mieux comprendre les sources de cette variabilité à l’échelle inter-arbre et intra-arbre, et de mesurer son impact sur la qualité et la valeur des sciages produits. L’objectif spécifique était de caractériser objectivement la couleur de l’aubier et du bois coloré en utilisant les valeurs colorimétriques L*a*b* et d’analyser l’effet de l’âge, du diamètre et de la vigueur des tiges ainsi que de la qualité et de la hauteur des billes sur ces valeurs colorimétriques et sur la proportion de bois coloré dans les planches. Un autre objectif spécifique était d’analyser l’impact de l’âge, du diamètre et de la vigueur des tiges sur les rendements en valeur et en qualité des sciages. L’analyse colorimétrique des sciages de 122 tiges de bouleau à papier provenant de deux peuplements de la région des Hautes-Laurentides, a été rendue possible par l’utilisation d’un système de vision artificielle automatisé. Un total de 2284 sciages a été étudié. En considérant l’ensemble de ces planches, une moyenne de 32.4 % de bois coloré par planche a été obtenue. Parmi les variables étudiées dans cette étude, seuls le diamètre et la vigueur des tiges ont eu un effet significatif sur la proportion de bois coloré. Les arbres ayant un plus fort diamètre ont produit les planches aux plus fortes proportions de bois coloré. L’âge n’a pas eu une influence assez forte pour être significative dans le modèle statistique. Les tiges les moins vigoureuses ont présenté une moyenne de 45,32 % de bois coloré par planche, celles de vigueur intermédiaire ont obtenu une moyenne de 30,78 % alors que les tiges les plus vigoureuses ont présenté en moyenne 15,47% de coloration. La qualité des billes ainsi que leur hauteur dans l’arbre n’ont pas eu d’impact significatif sur la proportion de bois coloré. Ces résultats suggèrent que des traitements sylvicoles favorisant la rétention de tiges vigoureuses et des révolutions de récolte plus courtes permettraient d’éviter une trop grande proportion de bois coloré dans les sciages. Des différences significatives entre les valeurs de L*a*b* du bois coloré et du bois clair ont été obtenues suite aux analyses colorimétriques. La luminosité (L*) s’est avérée comme étant le meilleur indicateur de changement de la couleur du bois de bouleau à papier. Les valeurs colorimétriques ont été principalement affectées par l’âge et le diamètre des tiges ainsi que la position des billes dans l’arbre et la qualité des billes. Toutefois, l’impact de ces variables sur les paramètres L*a*b* n’a pas été constant et a varié d’un paramètre à l’autre. Lorsque la valeur et la qualité des produits ont été analysées, de façon générale, des rendements en qualité NHLA assez faibles ont été obtenus : 60,3% de la superficie des sciages a été classée dans la classe de qualité No.2A Commun et dans les classes inférieures. Lorsque sélectionnées pour la couleur, la moitié de la superficie des planches étudiées a été classée dans la catégorie aubier, 4% des superficies ont été classées rouge alors que pour des superficies 28% l’aubier et le bois coloré étaient présents simultanément. L’impact de l’âge, du diamètre et de la vigueur de tiges sur la qualité et la valeur des planches a été analysé. Les résultats ont démontré que le diamètre des tiges a eu l’impact le plus important sur ces classements. Les tiges de dimensions plus fortes ont fourni des sciages de qualité supérieure et de plus grande valeur. La vigueur des tiges a eu un impact significatif sur la valeur des produits obtenus mais peu sur leur qualité. Les tiges les plus vigoureuses ont obtenu la plus grande valeur des planches avec une moyenne de 316.62 $/m³. Les tiges de vigueur moyenne, classées S et C, ont obtenu des moyennes respectives de 218.28$/m³ et 251.84 $/m, alors que les tiges les moins vigoureuses ont présenté la plus faible moyenne soit 165.94$/m³. L’âge des tiges a influencé dans le même sens que le diamètre ces classements valeur, mais pas aussi fortement. Ces résultats suggèrent que pour maximiser la valeur des sciages, il faudrait viser l’obtention de tiges de plus fort diamètre, possiblement par de plus longues révolutions. L’analyse des effets aléatoires a permis de discerner la variabilité inter-planche comme étant la plus importante source de variation, elle a été suivie de la variabilité inter-arbre et dans une moindre mesure de la variabilité inter-bille. La variabilité inter-peuplement n’a eu aucun effet significatif.The availability of high quality hardwood timber has become critical for furniture and other appearance products industries over the past years. The broad distribution of paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.), as well as the good aesthetic and physical characteristics of its wood, make it an interesting alternative to the high-value species traditionally used by the Québec hardwood sawmilling industry. Its pale and homogeneous sapwood is appreciated for many indoor uses. However, paper birch grows a false heartwood, also called discolored wood or red heartwood, contrasting in coloration with the surrounding sapwood. This difference in shade is not appreciated by the appearance wood products industry where in general homogeneous color products are desired. The main objective of this study is to define the limits of variability of paper birch wood color, to better understand its sources of variation, and to measure its impact on lumber products value and quality. More specifically, the aim of the research is to characterize objectively the color of its sapwood and discolored wood using L*a*b* values and to analyze the effects of tree age, diameter and vigor, as well as log height class and log quality, on these wood colorimetric values and on the proportion of discolored wood in boards. Another specific objective is to assess the impact of tree age, diameter and value on grade recovery, board color classification and lumber value. Results are based on 122 paper birch trees harvested in two different stands, from which logs of sawing quality have been sawn into 2284 boards. Trees were classified according to the MSCR tree classification system. The colorimetric analysis was performed on board images acquired by an industrial scanner developed for the appearance products industry. An image processing software, developed for the scanner was used to view these digital images on which defects have been automatically detected, to process them and to collect colorimetric information. The software was used to measure the proportion of every board surface belonging to sapwood and discolored wood regions. An average percentage area of 32.4 % of discolored wood on boards was obtained when considering all boards. Tree diameter and tree vigor significantly influenced the proportion of discolored wood in boards whereas the effect of tree age was not strong enough to have a significant influence in the model. Larger trees presented more board discoloration. Less vigorous trees showed a mean percentage area of 45.32 % compared to middle vigor classes and most vigorous trees which obtained a mean percentage area of 30.78% and 15.47 %, respectively. Neither log quality nor log height class had a significant effect on the proportion of discolored wood on the board surfaces. Results from this part of the study suggest shorter rotations as well as silvicultural treatments that can improve tree vigor to limit the presence of discolored wood in boards. Colorimetric results showed significant differences between L*a*b* values when comparing sapwood and discolored wood. The luminosity (L*) parameter appears as the best indicator of color changes in paper birch wood. These wood colorimetric values were mostly affected by tree age and tree diameter, but their effects on every colorimetric parameter were variable. Log quality and log height class also had a significant effect on some of the wood colorimetric variables, but once again their impact was variable which makes it hard to dress any clear general conclusions. Regarding board quality and value, paper birches of this study yielded a high proportion of low-grade lumber according to the NHLA rules; 60.3% of the total board surface area belonged to #2A Common and lower quality categories. Results showed that tree diameter was the most important variable affecting these outputs. Larger trees were associated with higher board quality and higher lumber value per tree. Lumber value per tree was as well influenced by tree vigor but not by tree age. Most vigorous trees (R) produced higher board values with an average of 316.62 $/m³, middle vigor S and C classes showed averages of 218.28$/m³ and 251.84 $/m³ while the less vigorous trees had the lowest average with 165.94$/m³. When selected for color, 50% of the board surface area fell under the sap category, while 28% was classified as regular presenting simultaneously both colorations and finally only 4% of the board area was classified as red. It was found that the most important variable affecting board color distribution were tree vigor and tree diameter whereas tree age had also a significant but lesser impact. In general, older, larger and less vigorous trees tended to present higher proportions of boards classified in the red category. Finally the results obtained in this study are favoring longer harvesting rotations in order to produce large trees that can be transformed in higher value and quality boards. The analysis of the random effects throughout the study demonstrated that most of the total random variance of the dependent factors came mostly from the between board variation, but also from the between tree variation and to a lesser extent from the between log variations. No site effect was found to be significant

Socio-Economic Evaluation of the Potential for Australian Tree Species in the Philippines

Crop Production/Industries,