Dedicated design of experiments and experimental diagnostic tools for accurate reliability investigations on AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs)

Le développement intensif et rapide des dispositifs HEMT à base de nitrure de gallium a été largement favorisé par les qualités intrinsèques du matériau pour proposer des performances élevées (haute puissance, haute fréquence...) et pour autoriser un fonctionnement en environnement extrêmement sévère (fluctuations thermiques, brouillage, tenues aux radiations ionisantes...) par rapport aux technologies concurrentes plus traditionnelles (Si, GaAs...). À ce jour, les dispositifs HEMTs AlGaN/GaN sont considérés comme une alternative prometteuse pour remplacer la technologie GaAs, et se positionnent comme d'excellents candidats pour des applications d'électronique de puissance, pour les applications TVSAT, des stations de base terrestres et des systèmes radar à large bande de fréquence (bande L à W), et pour les applications civiles et militaires. Cependant, il reste à lever certains verrous concernant des problèmes de fiabilité de ces dispositifs, qui affectent la durée de vie élevée attendue ; l'amélioration de la robustesse de ces technologies reste une phase critique à étudier malgré les progrès déjà réalisés. Plusieurs paramètres de fabrication affectent la fiabilité, tels que la passivation de la surface, le plateau de champ, le procédé de dépôt de la grille. Il est bien connu que l'étude de la fiabilité est complexe et ne pourra jamais être totalement accomplie, cependant les limites escomptées pour une exploitation raisonnable des filières GaN laissent entrevoir la possibilité de réels progrès dans ce domaine pour assoir le positionnement de ces technologies vis à vis des solutions concurrentes. Ce manuscrit de thèse présente les outils de diagnostic et les procédures de mesures associées développés pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes de dégradation sous-jacents de ces dispositifs. Les mesures électriques DC et pulsées à différentes températures sont présentées en premier lieu. Pour obtenir des informations au niveau microscopique sur la fluctuation des porteurs et des défauts dans les zones actives et passives du dispositif, des mesures de bruit basse fréquence sont effectuées sur les courant de grille et de drain sous différentes configurations : la diode seule (drain en l'air) et le transistor en régime saturé. Une technique électro-optique, l'OBIRCh (Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change technique), est aussi appliquée sur les mêmes composants : cette technique apporte d'autres informations quant à l'intégrité du composant (fluctuations de courant), et vient corroborer nos hypothèses sur l'activation de mécanismes piezoélectriques dans les zones fortement polarisées du composant. Toutes ces techniques non-destructives permettent des analyses croisées. Un modèle original de la diode Schottky a été établi pour tenir compte de certains défauts d'homogénéité à l'intérieur du contact de grille à l'interface entre la diode Schottky et la couche semi-conductrice supérieure. D'autres résultats originaux ont été trouvés à partir des mesures de bruit basse fréquence concernant la localisation des défauts actifs et leur évolution suite à l'application d'un stress électrique et thermique (HTRB, HTOL, ...). Les analyses électriques (pulsées et transitoires) des phénomènes de retard à la commande (grille ou drain) sont partiellement corrélées aux analyses du bruit basse fréquences des courant de grille et de drain pour identifier les mécanismes sous-jacents de dégradations. Dernièrement, une ébauche de plan d'expérience (DOE) est proposée dans le cadre de notre travail, qui complètera celui mis en œuvre dans le cadre du projet ANR REAGAN impliquant tous les partenaires : des règles et des procédures expérimentales sont identifiées pour s'assurer que les données expérimentales sont fiables (i.e. reflètent statistiquement le comportement réel du dispositif).Intensive and rapid development of GaN-based HEMT devices has been largely promoted by their extreme attraction and intrinsic capabilities for proposing high performances (high power and PAE, high frequency, moderate HF noise...) and for operating under different extreme conditions and harsh environment (thermal fluctuations, jamming, ionizing radiations...) over more traditional competitive technologies (Si, GaAs). More than ever, AlGaN/GaN HEMTs are considered as promising technology to replace the GaAs, and an excellent candidate for power electronics applications, for TVSAT applications, terrestrial base stations and radar transceivers operating over large frequency band (from L to W-band) for both civil and military applications. However, some remaining problems concerning the reliability of the devices affect the expected elevated lifetime, and the improvement of the robustness of these technologies stay a questionable phase to study despite the progress already made. Several fabrication parameters could impact the reliability such as surface passivation, field plate, gate deposition process (presence of spontaneous and piezoelectrical effects). It is well known that the reliability background is complex and will never be completely accomplished, but the margin between expected theoretical lifetime and results already obtained motivates efforts to give for an improved level of reliability. The following manuscript presents diagnostic tools and associated measurement procedures to better understand the underlying degradation mechanisms of such devices. Electrical DC and pulsed measurements at different temperatures are presented first. To get more microscopic information about the carrier flow and the defects in the active and passive areas of the device, low frequency noise measurements on the gate and drain currents are investigated under open drain (Schottky diode) and when the transistor is biased in saturated region. An electro-optical technique is also applied, called OBIRCh (Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change technique), on the same devices: this technique brings other expertise about the device integrity (current fluctuations). All these non-destructive techniques are cross-correlated. Original Schottky diode models have been established to account for some inhomogeneities within the gate contact at the interface between the Schottky diode and the upper semiconductor layer. Some other original results have been found from Low Frequency Noise measurements concerning the location of the active defects, and their evolution after the application of thermal and electrical stresses (HTRB & HTOL). The electrical (pulsed and transient) analyses of lag effects are correlated to the harmonic low frequency analysis of the current spectral densities to identify the root trapping mechanisms. Lastly, a first Design of Experiment (DOE) is proposed in conjunction with our work, and also within the ANR REAGAN project involving all the partners: experimental rules and procedures are identified to ensure that the experimental data are reliable (i.e. reflect the actual behavior of the device, with statistical assessment)

Nonlinear microscopy for failure analysis of CMOS integrated circuits in the vectorial focusing regime

This thesis focuses on the development of techniques for enhancing the spatial resolution and localisation precision in the sub-surface microscopy for failure analysis in semiconductor integrated circuits (ICs). Highest spatial resolutions are obtained by implementing solid immersion lenses (SIL), which provide unsurpassed numerical aperture (NA) for sub-surface microscopy. These high NA conditions mean that scalar diffraction theory is no longer valid and a vectorial focusing description should be applied to accurately describe the focal plane electric field distribution. Vectorial theory predicts that under high NA conditions a linearly polarised (LP) light focuses to a spot that is extended along the electric field vector, but radially polarised (RP) light is predicted to form a circular spot whose diameter equals the narrower dimension obtained with linear polarisation. By implementing a novel liquid-crystal (LC) radial polarisation converter (RPC) this effect was studied for both two-photon optical-beam-induced current (TOBIC) microscopy and two-photon laser assisted device alteration (2pLADA) techniques, showing a resolution and localisation improvement using the RP beam. By comparing images of the same structural features obtained using linear, circular and radial polarisations imaging and localisation resolutions both approaching 100 nm were demonstrated. The obtained experimental results were in good agreement with modelling and were consistent with theoretically predicted behaviour. Certain artefacts were observed under radial polarisation, which were thought to result from the extended depth of focus and the significant longitudinal field component. In any application these effects must be considered alongside the benefits of the symmetric field distribution in the focal plane. While SIL sub-surface microscopy offers unmatched spatial resolutions, it is prone to being severely degraded by aberrations arising from inaccurate dimensions of the SIL, imprecise substrate thickness or imperfect contact between SIL and substrate. It is in this context that techniques to identify and even mitigate aberrations in the system are important. A simple approach is demonstrated for revealing the presence of chromatic and spherical aberrations by measuring the two-photon autocorrelation of the pulses at the focal plane inside the sample. In the case of aberration free imaging, it was shown both theoretically and experimentally that the planes of the maximum autocorrelation amplitude and shortest pulse duration always coincide. Therefore, the optics of the imaging system can be first adjusted to obtain the minimum autocorrelation duration and then the wavefront of incident light modified to maximise the autocorrelation intensity, iterating this procedure until the positions of minimum pulse duration and maximum autocorrelation amplitude coincide

Solid immersion lens applications for nanophotonic devices

Solid immersion lens (SIL) microscopy combines the advantages of conventional microscopy with those of near-field techniques, and is being increasingly adopted across a diverse range of technologies and applications. A comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art in this rapidly expanding subject is therefore increasingly relevant. Important benefits are enabled by SIL-focusing, including an improved lateral and axial spatial profiling resolution when a SIL is used in laser-scanning microscopy or excitation, and an improved collection efficiency when a SIL is used in a light-collection mode, for example in fluorescence micro-spectroscopy. These advantages arise from the increase in numerical aperture (NA) that is provided by a SIL. Other SIL-enhanced improvements, for example spherical-aberration-free sub-surface imaging, are a fundamental consequence of the aplanatic imaging condition that results from the spherical geometry of the SIL. Beginning with an introduction to the theory of SIL imaging, the unique properties of SILs are exposed to provide advantages in applications involving the interrogation of photonic and electronic nanostructures. Such applications range from the sub-surface examination of the complex three-dimensional microstructures fabricated in silicon integrated circuits, to quantum photoluminescence and transmission measurements in semiconductor quantum dot nanostructures

Ultra-high-resolution optical imaging for silicon integrated-circuit inspection

This thesis concerns the development of novel resolution-enhancing optical techniques for the purposes of non-destructive sub-surface semiconductor integrated-circuit (IC) inspection. This was achieved by utilising solid immersion lens (SIL) technology, polarisation-dependent imaging, pupil-function engineering and optical coherence tomography (OCT). A SIL-enhanced two-photon optical beam induced current (TOBIC) microscope was constructed for the acquisition of ultra-high-resolution two- and three-dimensional images of a silicon flip-chip using a 1.55μm modelocked Er:fibre laser. This technology provided diffraction-limited lateral and axial resolutions of 166nm and 100nm, respectively - an order of magnitude improvement over previous TOBIC imaging work. The ultra-high numerical aperture (NA) provided by SIL-imaging in silicon (NA=3.5) was used to show, for the first time, the presence of polarisation-dependent vectorialfield effects in an image. These effects were modelled using vector diffraction theory to confirm the increasing ellipticity of the focal-plane energy density distribution as the NA of the system approaches unity. An unprecedented resolution performance ranging from 240nm to ~100nm was obtained, depending of the state of polarisation used. The resolution-enhancing effects of pupil-function engineering were investigated and implemented into a nonlinear polarisation-dependent SIL-enhanced laser microscope to demonstrate a minimum resolution performance of 70nm in a silicon flip-chip. The performance of the annular apertures used in this work was modelled using vectorial diffraction theory to interpret the experimentally-obtained images. The development of an ultra-high-resolution high-dynamic-range OCT system is reported which utilised a broadband supercontinuum source and a balanced-detection scheme in a time-domain Michelson interferometer to achieve an axial resolution of 2.5μm (in air). The examination of silicon ICs demonstrated both a unique substrate profiling and novel inspection technology for circuit navigation and characterisation. In addition, the application of OCT to the investigation of artwork samples and contemporary banknotes is demonstrated for the purposes of art conservation and counterfeit prevention

Laser Reflectance Modulation in Silicon Integrated Circuits

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

Analyse des circuits intégrés par laser en mode sonde

The main objective of the presented research work in this PhD thesis is to help to understand the different mechanisms and phenomena involved in the interaction of a laser with a semiconductor in the analysis of a submicron integrated circuit. The aim is to master and improve the Electro Optical Probing techniques. Miniaturization and densification of electronic components lead the failure analysis techniques using Laser to their limits. Knowing the impact of different physical, optical and electrical parameters on a probing analysis is a key to improve the understanding the measured EOP signals. These studies also show the significant effect of temperature on the EOP techniques.Les travaux de recherche présentés dans ce manuscrit de thèse ont pour principal objectif d’aider à comprendre les différents mécanismes et phénomènes qui interviennent lors de l’interaction d’un laser avec un semiconducteur dans une analyse de circuits intégrés submicroniques. Le but étant de maitriser et améliorer les techniques d’analyse par laser en mode sonde. La miniaturisation et la densification des composants électroniques fait que les techniques d’analyse par laser atteignent leurs limites. Connaitre l’impact des différents paramètres physiques, optiques et électriques sur une analyse sonde est un facteur clé pour pouvoir améliorer la compréhension des signaux sonde mesuré. Ces travaux montrent également l’effet non négligeable de la température sur les techniques d’analyse par laser en mode sonde

Adaptive optics wavefront compensation for solid immersion microscopy in backside imaging

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston UniversityThis dissertation concerns advances in high-resolution optical microscopy needed to detect faults in next generation semiconductor chips. In this application, images are made through the chips' back side to avoid opaque interconnect metal layers on the frontside. Near infrared wavelengths are required, since the silicon is relatively transparent at these wavelengths. A significant challenge in this technique is to resolve features as small as 200nm using wavelengths exceeding 1OOOnm. The highest imaging resolution achievable with refractive optics at infrared wavelengths is demonstrated in this dissertation using an aplanatic solid immersion lens (SIL). This is the only method that has been found to be of sufficient resolution to image the next generation of integrated circuits. While the use of an aplanatic solid immersion lens theoretically allows numerical aperture far in excess of conventional microscopy (NASIL ~ 3.5), it also makes the system performance particularly sensitive to aberrations, especially when the samples have thicknesses that are more than a few micrometers thicker or thinner than designed thickness, or when the refractive index of the SIL is slightly different than that of the sample. In the work described here, practical design considerations of the SILs are examined. A SIL-based confocal scanning microscope system is designed and constructed. The aberrations of the system due to thickness uncertainty and material mismatch are simulated using both analytical model and ray-tracing software, and are measured in the SIL experimental apparatus. The dominant aberration for samples with thickness mismatch is found to be spherical aberration. Wavefront errors are compensated by a microelectromechanical systems deformable mirror (MEMS DM) in the optical system's pupil. The controller is implemented either with closed-loop real time sensor feedback or with predictive open-loop estimation of optical aberrations. Different DM control algorithms and aberration compensation techniques are studied and compared. The experimental results agree well with simulation and it has been demonstrated through models and experiments in this work that the stringent sample thickness tolerances previously needed for high numerical aperture SIL microcopy can be relaxed considerably through aberration compensation. Near-diffraction-limited imaging performance has been achieved in most cases that correspond to practical implementation of the technique

Applications de la cartographie en émission de lumière dynamique (Time Resolved Imaging) pour l'analyse de défaillance des composants VLSI

Les technologies VLSI ( Very large Scale Integration ) font partie de notre quotidien et nos besoins en miniaturisation sont croissants. La densification des transistors occasionne non seulement des difficultés à localiser les défauts dits hard apparaissant durant les phases de développement (débug) ou de vieillissement, mais aussi l apparition de comportements non fonctionnels purs du composant liées à des défauts de conception. Les techniques abordées dans ce document sont destinées à sonder les circuits microélectroniques à l aide d un outil appelé émission de lumière dynamique (Time Resolved Imaging - TRI) à la recherche de comportements anormaux au niveau des timings et des patterns en jeu dans les structures. Afin d aller plus loin, cet instrument permet également la visualisation thermographique en temps résolue de phénomènes thermiques transitoires au sein d un composant.VLSI ("Very Large Scale Integration") technologies are part of our daily lives and our miniaturization needs are increasing. The densification of transistors not only means trouble locating the so-called "hard defects" occurring during the development phases (debug) or aging, but also the appearance of pure non-functional behaviors related to component design flaws. Techniques discussed in this document are intended to probe the microelectronic circuits using a tool called dynamic light emission (Time Resolved Imaging - TRI) in search of abnormal behavior in terms of timings and patterns involved in structures. To go further, this instrument also allows viewing thermographic time resolved thermal transients within a component.BORDEAUX1-Bib.electronique (335229901) / SudocSudocFranceF