Merged Search Algorithms for Radio Frequency Identification Anticollision

Nowadays, the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system enables the control of many devices over an open communication infrastructure ranging from a small home area network to the global Internet. Moreover, a variety of consumer products are tagged with remotely low-cost readable identification electromagnetic tags to replace Bar Codes. Applications such as automatic object tracking, inventory and supply chain management, and Web appliances were adopted for years in many companies. The arbitration algorithm for RFID system is used to arbitrate all the tags to avoid the collision problem with the existence of multiple tags in the interrogation field of a transponder. A splitting algorithm which is called Binary Search Tree (BST) is well known for multitags arbitration. In the current study, a splitting-based schema called Merged Search Tree is proposed to capture identification codes correctly for anticollision. Performance of the proposed algorithm is compared with the original BST according to time and power consumed during the arbitration process. The results show that the proposed model can reduce searching time and power consumed to achieve a better performance arbitration

Energy efficiency in short and wide-area IoT technologies—A survey

In the last years, the Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a key application context in the design and evolution of technologies in the transition toward a 5G ecosystem. More and more IoT technologies have entered the market and represent important enablers in the deployment of networks of interconnected devices. As network and spatial device densities grow, energy efficiency and consumption are becoming an important aspect in analyzing the performance and suitability of different technologies. In this framework, this survey presents an extensive review of IoT technologies, including both Low-Power Short-Area Networks (LPSANs) and Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs), from the perspective of energy efficiency and power consumption. Existing consumption models and energy efficiency mechanisms are categorized, analyzed and discussed, in order to highlight the main trends proposed in literature and standards toward achieving energy-efficient IoT networks. Current limitations and open challenges are also discussed, aiming at highlighting new possible research directions

Protocol-level performance analysis and implementation for anti-collision protocols in RFID systems

In this thesis, we provide an analytical approach to evaluate the performance of anti-collision protocols in Radio-frequency identification RFID systems. The analysis is given at protocol-level using performance metrics such as the number of state transitions and clock cycles involved in the protocols\u27 state diagrams, their power and energy consumption. Different protocols were also implemented at different level of abstractions and accurate power analysis was performed in layout level. Discussion and comparison are based on worst-case scenario that represents the process of identifying the last tag when multiple tags are simultaneously available in the system. In particular, a new protocol is proposed for performance improvement. This protocol not only provides fast tag identification mechanism but also reduces tag\u27s power and energy consumptions as compared to other protocols that were covered in this study

Reliable Communication in Wireless Networks

Wireless communication systems are increasingly being used in industries and infrastructures since they offer significant advantages such as cost effectiveness and scalability with respect to wired communication system. However, the broadcast feature and the unreliable links in the wireless communication system may cause more communication collisions and redundant transmissions. Consequently, guaranteeing reliable and efficient transmission in wireless communication systems has become a big challenging issue. In particular, analysis and evaluation of reliable transmission protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and radio frequency identification system (RFID) are strongly required. This thesis proposes to model, analyze and evaluate self-configuration algorithms in wireless communication systems. The objective is to propose innovative solutions for communication protocols in WSNs and RFID systems, aiming at optimizing the performance of the algorithms in terms of throughput, reliability and power consumption. The first activity focuses on communication protocols in WSNs, which have been investigated, evaluated and optimized, in order to ensure fast and reliable data transmission between sensor nodes. The second research topic addresses the interference problem in RFID systems. The target is to evaluate and develop precise models for accurately describing the interference among readers. Based on these models, new solutions for reducing collision in RFID systems have been investigated

An Energy-Efficient ECC Processor of UHF RFID Tag for Banknote Anti-Counterfeiting

In this paper, we present the design and analysis of an energy-efficient 163-b elliptic curve cryptographic (ECC) processor suitable for passive ultrahigh frequency (UHF) radio frequency identification (RFID) tags that are usable for banknote authentication and anti-counterfeiting. Even partial public key cryptographic functionality has long been thought to consume too much power and to be too slow to be usable in passive UHF RFID systems. Utilizing a low-power design strategy with optimized register file management and an architecture based on the López-Dahab Algorithm, we designed a low-power ECC processor that is used with a modified ECC-DH authentication protocol. The ECC-DH authentication protocol is compatible with the ISO/IEC 18000-63 (“Gen2”) passive UHF RFID protocol. The ECC processor requires 12 145 gate equivalents. The ECC processor consumes 5.04 nJ/b at a frequency of 960 kHz when implemented in a 0.13-μm standard CMOS process. The tag identity authentication function requires 30 600 cycles to complete all scalar multiplication operations. This size, speed, and power of the ECC processor makes it practical to use within a passive UHF RFID tag and achieve up to 1500 banknote authentications per minute, which is sufficient for use in the fastest banknote counting machines

Adaptive Power Control Protocol with Hardware Implementation for Wireless Sensor and RFID Reader Networks

The development and deployment of radio frequency identification (RFID) systems render a novel distributed sensor network which enhances visibility into manufacturing processes. In RFID systems, the detection range and read rates will suffer from interference among high-power reading devices. This problem grows severely and degrades system performance in dense RFID networks. Consequently, medium access protocols (MAC) protocols are needed for such networks to assess and provide access to the channel so that tags can be read accurately. In this paper, we investigate a suite of feasible power control schemes to ensure overall coverage area of the system while maintaining a desired read rate. The power control scheme and MAC protocol dynamically adjust the RFID reader power output in response to the interference level seen during tag reading and acceptable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We present novel distributed adaptive power control (DAPC) as a possible solution. A suitable back off scheme is also added with DAPC to improve coverage. A generic UHF wireless testbed is built using UMR/SLU GEN4-SSN for implementing the protocol. Both the methodology and hardware implementation of the schemes are presented, compared, and discussed. The results of hardware implementation illustrate that the protocol performs satisfactorily as expected

Advances in analytical models and applications for RFID, WSN and AmI systems

Experimentos llevados a cabo con el equipo de división de honor UCAM Volleyball Murcia.[SPA] Internet de las cosas (IoT) integra distintos elementos que actúan tanto como fuentes, como sumideros de información, a diferencia de la percepción que se ha tenido hasta ahora de Internet, centrado en las personas. Los avances en IoT engloban un amplio número de áreas y tecnologías, desde la adquisición de información hasta el desarrollo de nuevos protocolos y aplicaciones. Un concepto clave que subyace en el concepto de IoT, es el procesamiento de forma inteligente y autónoma de los flujos de información que se dispone. En este trabajo, estudiamos tres aspectos diferentes de IoT. En primer lugar, nos centraremos en la infraestructura de obtención de datos. Entre las diferentes tecnologías de obtención de datos disponibles en los sistemas IoT, la Identificación por Radio Frecuencia (RFID) es considerada como una de las tecnologías predominantes. RFID es la tecnología detrás de aplicaciones tales como control de acceso, seguimiento y rastreo de contenedores, gestión de archivos, clasificación de equipaje o localización de equipos. Con el auge de la tecnología RFID, muchas instalaciones empiezan a requerir la presencia de múltiples lectores RFID que operan próximos entre sí y conjuntamente. A estos escenarios se les conoce como dense reader environments (DREs). La coexistencia de varios lectores operando simultáneamente puede causar graves problemas de interferencias en el proceso de identificación. Uno de los aspectos claves a resolver en los RFID DREs consiste en lograr la coordinación entre los lectores. Estos problemas de coordinación son tratados en detalle en esta tesis doctoral. Además, dentro del área de obtención de datos relativa a IoT, las Redes de Sensores Inalámbricas (WSNs) desempeñan un papel fundamental. Durante la última década, las WSNs han sido estudiadas ampliamente de forma teórica, y la mayoría de problemas relacionados con la comunicación en este tipo de redes se han conseguido resolver de forma favorable. Sin embargo, con la implementación de WSNs en proyectos reales, han surgido nuevos problemas, siendo uno de ellos el desarrollo de estrategias realistas para desplegar las WSN. En este trabajo se estudian diferentes métodos que resuelven este problema, centrándonos en distintos criterios de optimización, y analizando las diferentes ventajas e inconvenientes que se producen al buscar una solución equilibrada. Por último, la Inteligencia Ambiental (AmI) forma parte del desarrollo de aplicaciones inteligentes en IoT. Hasta ahora, han sido las personas quienes han tenido que adaptarse al entorno, en cambio, AmI persigue crear entornos de obtención de datos capaces de anticipar y apoyar las acciones de las personas. AmI se está introduciendo progresivamente en diversos entornos reales tales como el sector de la educación y la salud, en viviendas, etc. En esta tesis se introduce un sistema AmI orientado al deporte que busca mejorar el entrenamiento de los atletas, siendo el objetivo prioritario el desarrollo de un asistente capaz de proporcionar órdenes de entrenamiento, basadas tanto en el entorno como en el rendimiento de los atletas. [ENG] Internet of Things (IoT) is being built upon many different elements acting as sources and sinks of information, rather than the previous human-centric Internet conception. Developments in IoT include a vast set of fields ranging from data sensing, to development of new protocols and applications. Indeed, a key concept underlying in the conception of IoT is the smart and autonomous processing of the new huge data flows available. In this work, we aim to study three different aspects within IoT. First, we will focus on the sensing infrastructure. Among the different kind of sensing technologies available to IoT systems, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is widely considered one of the leading technologies. RFID is the enabling technology behind applications such as access control, tracking and tracing of containers, file management, baggage sorting or equipment location. With the grow up of RFID, many facilities require multiple RFID readers usually operating close to each other. These are known as Dense Reader Environments (DREs). The co-existence of several readers operating concurrently is known to cause severe interferences on the identification process. One of the key aspects to solve in RFID DREs is achieving proper coordination among readers. This is the focus of the first part of this doctoral thesis. Unlike previous works based on heuristics, we address this problem through an optimization-based approach. The goal is identifying the maximum mean number of tags while network constraints are met. To be able to formulate these optimization problems, we have obtained analytically the mean number of identifications in a bounded -discrete or continuous- time period, an additional novel contribution of our work. Results show that our approach is overwhelmingly better than previous known methods. Along sensing technologies of IoT, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) plays a fundamental role. WSNs have been largely and theoretically studied in the past decade, and many of their initial problems related to communication aspects have been successfully solved. However, with the adoption of WSNs in real-life projects, new issues have arisen, being one of them the development of realistic strategies to deploy WSNs. We have studied different ways of solving this aspect by focusing on different optimality criteria and evaluating the different trade-offs that occur when a balanced solution must be selected. On the one hand, deterministic placements subject to conflicting goals have been addressed. Results can be obtained in the form of Pareto-frontiers, allowing proper solution selection. On the other hand, a number of situations correspond to deployments were the nodes¿ position is inherently random. We have analyzed these situations leading first to a theoretical model, which later has been particularized to a Moon WSN survey. Our work is the first considering a full model with realistic properties such as 3D topography, propellant consumptions or network lifetime and mass limitations. Furthermore, development of smart applications within IoT is the focus of the Ambient Intelligence (AmI) field. Rather than having people adapting to the surrounding environment, AmI pursues the development of sensitive environments able to anticipate support in people¿s actions. AmI is progressively being introduced in many real-life environments like education, homes, health and so forth. In this thesis we develop a sport-oriented AmI system designed to improve athletes training. The goal is developing an assistant able to provide real-time training orders based on both environment and athletes¿ biometry, which is aimed to control the aerobic and the technical-tactical training. Validation experiments with the honor league UCAM Volleyball Murcia team have shown the suitability of this approach.[ENG] Internet of Things (IoT) is being built upon many different elements acting as sources and sinks of information, rather than the previous human-centric Internet conception. Developments in IoT include a vast set of fields ranging from data sensing, to development of new protocols and applications. Indeed, a key concept underlying in the conception of IoT is the smart and autonomous processing of the new huge data flows available. In this work, we aim to study three different aspects within IoT. First, we will focus on the sensing infrastructure. Among the different kind of sensing technologies available to IoT systems, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is widely considered one of the leading technologies. RFID is the enabling technology behind applications such as access control, tracking and tracing of containers, file management, baggage sorting or equipment location. With the grow up of RFID, many facilities require multiple RFID readers usually operating close to each other. These are known as Dense Reader Environments (DREs). The co-existence of several readers operating concurrently is known to cause severe interferences on the identification process. One of the key aspects to solve in RFID DREs is achieving proper coordination among readers. This is the focus of the first part of this doctoral thesis. Unlike previous works based on heuristics, we address this problem through an optimization-based approach. The goal is identifying the maximum mean number of tags while network constraints are met. To be able to formulate these optimization problems, we have obtained analytically the mean number of identifications in a bounded -discrete or continuous- time period, an additional novel contribution of our work. Results show that our approach is overwhelmingly better than previous known methods. Along sensing technologies of IoT, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) plays a fundamental role. WSNs have been largely and theoretically studied in the past decade, and many of their initial problems related to communication aspects have been successfully solved. However, with the adoption of WSNs in real-life projects, new issues have arisen, being one of them the development of realistic strategies to deploy WSNs. We have studied different ways of solving this aspect by focusing on different optimality criteria and evaluating the different trade-offs that occur when a balanced solution must be selected. On the one hand, deterministic placements subject to conflicting goals have been addressed. Results can be obtained in the form of Pareto-frontiers, allowing proper solution selection. On the other hand, a number of situations correspond to deployments were the nodes¿ position is inherently random. We have analyzed these situations leading first to a theoretical model, which later has been particularized to a Moon WSN survey. Our work is the first considering a full model with realistic properties such as 3D topography, propellant consumptions or network lifetime and mass limitations. Furthermore, development of smart applications within IoT is the focus of the Ambient Intelligence (AmI) field. Rather than having people adapting to the surrounding environment, AmI pursues the development of sensitive environments able to anticipate support in people¿s actions. AmI is progressively being introduced in many real-life environments like education, homes, health and so forth. In this thesis we develop a sport-oriented AmI system designed to improve athletes training. The goal is developing an assistant able to provide real-time training orders based on both environment and athletes¿ biometry, which is aimed to control the aerobic and the technical-tactical training. Validation experiments with the honor league UCAM Volleyball Murcia team have shown the suitability of this approach.Universidad Politécnica de CartagenaPrograma de doctorado en Tecnología de la Información y de las Comunicacione

Anti-collision techniques for RFID systems.

Chiang Kong Wa.Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006.Includes bibliographical references (leaves 74-79).Abstracts in English and Chinese.Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1Chapter 2 --- Technology Overview --- p.4Chapter 2.1 --- Components of RFID Systems --- p.5Chapter 2.1.1 --- Tag --- p.6Chapter 2.1.2 --- Reader --- p.9Chapter 2.1.3 --- Software systems --- p.10Chapter 2.1.4 --- Communication infrastructure --- p.11Chapter 2.2 --- Frequency Regulations and Standards --- p.11Chapter 2.2.1 --- RFID frequency bands --- p.11Chapter 2.2.2 --- Standards --- p.12Chapter 2.3 --- Advantages and Limitations of RFID Technology --- p.14Chapter 2.4 --- Applications --- p.17Chapter 3 --- Background of Research --- p.20Chapter 3.1 --- Anti-collision methods for RFID systems --- p.22Chapter 3.1.1 --- Stochastic Anti-collision Protocols --- p.25Chapter 3.1.2 --- Deterministic Anti-collision Protocols --- p.27Chapter 4 --- Even-Odd Binary Tree Protocol --- p.30Chapter 4.1 --- Protocol Description --- p.31Chapter 4.2 --- Time Complexity Analysis --- p.34Chapter 4.3 --- Performance Evaluation --- p.37Chapter 4.4 --- Summary --- p.41Chapter 5 --- Prefix-Randomized Query-Tree Protocol --- p.44Chapter 5.1 --- Tag Identification - Known Tag Set Size --- p.45Chapter 5.1.1 --- Protocol Description --- p.45Chapter 5.1.2 --- Time Complexity Analysis --- p.47Chapter 5.1.3 --- Optimal Initial Prefix Length --- p.50Chapter 5.1.4 --- Optimal Number of Level-1 Nodes --- p.52Chapter 5.2 --- Tag Identification - Unknown Tag Set Size --- p.53Chapter 5.2.1 --- Initial Prefix Length Adaptation Algorithm --- p.54Chapter 5.2.2 --- Computing r*Δ(l) --- p.55Chapter 5.2.3 --- Optimal Choice of Step Size Δ --- p.56Chapter 5.3 --- Performance Evaluation --- p.59Chapter 5.4 --- Summary --- p.64Chapter 6 --- Conclusion and Future Work --- p.68Chapter 6.1 --- Conclusion --- p.68Chapter 6.2 --- Future Work --- p.70Bibliography --- p.7

Integrating the Supply Chain with RFID: A Technical and Business Analysis

This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the technical and business implications of adopting Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in organizational settings. The year 2004 marked a significant shift toward adopting RFID because of mandates by large retailers and government organizations. The use of RFID technology is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years. At present, however, initial barriers against widespread adoption include standards, interoperability, costs, forward compatibility, and lack of familiarity. This paper describes basic components of an RFID system including tags, readers, and antennas and how they work together using an integrated supply chain model. Our analysis suggests that business needs to overcome human resource scarcity, security, legal and financial challenges and make informed decision regarding standards and process reengineering. The technology is not fully mature and suffers from issues of attenuation and interference. A laboratory experiment conducted by the authors\u27 shows that the middleware is not yet at a plug-and-play stage, which means that initial adopters need to spend considerable effort to integrate RFID into their existing business processes. Appendices contain a glossary of common RFID terms, a list of RFID vendors and detailed findings of the laboratory experiment. NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS USED, THIS ARTICLE IS LONG; APPROXIMATELY 850KB IN BOTH JOURNAL AND ARTICLE VERSIO