CO2 Capture and Renewable Energy

The urgently needed carbon neutral economy requires a portfolio of strategies, among which, CO2 capture and renewable energy will need to play a decisive role. Dispatchable renewables, such as bioenergy, will play an increasing role in maintaining electricity security, in producing heat in the industry and residential sectors, and in reducing the emissions from the transport sector. Biomethane, also known as a renewable natural gas, can be directly blended with or fully replace natural gas in existing pipelines and end-user equipment, with the added advantage of being carbon neutral. CO2 capture and storage (CCS) will also be of paramount importance in abating CO2 emissions from existing infrastructure in the power and industrial sectors. There are many industries that will be difficult or impossible to decarbonize in the short term, such as the cement sector, in which CO2 emissions are intrinsic to the production process. In such cases, CCS will be mandatory to achieve the goal of net zero emissions. Permanent CO2 removal technologies, such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and direct air capture and storage (DACS), will also be necessary in the medium term to compensate for emissions from the hard-to-abate sectors, and in the long term, even to remove atmospheric CO2 from past emissions. This book consists of six peer-reviewed scientific articles that cover a range of high-interest subjects related to the aforementioned hot topics

Focus on the Review Standards of Article XXI of the GATT

학위논문(박사) -- 서울대학교대학원 : 법과대학 법학과, 2021.8. 장승화.트럼프 前대통령이“보호무역주의”이데올로기에 기반한 새로운 무역정책을 선언한 이후, 미국은 국가안보 보호의 목적 下 매우 공격적인 경제제재와 수출통제를 운영하고 있다. 미국이 국제무역에 대하여 보호주의적 접근을 취한 것은 처음이 아니지만, 트럼프 前대통령의 무역정책은 근대 개방 무역 시대에서 볼 수 있는 가장 극단적인 보호무역주의라 할 수 있다. 트럼프의 대통령 취임 이후, 경제제재와 수출통제는 美정부 외교 정책의 지배적인 부분이 되었다. 미국의 경제제재는 지난 몇 년 동안 전례 없는 속도로 강화되었다. 특히, 트럼프 행정부는 美정부가 거래금지대상자로 등재한 국가 또는 기업/개인 관련, 非미국 기업/개인의 거래를 통제하기 위하여 경제제재 프로그램을 강화해왔다. 또한, 美정부는 현재 중국과 같은 경쟁국가向 미국 기술 이전을 통제하기 위하여, 신흥(Emerging) 및 기반(Foundational) 기술을 美수출통제규정 上 통제품목 범주에 포함시키는 수출통제 품목 대규모 확장을 진행 중이다. 바이든행정부 출범 이후에도 美수출통제 및 경제제재는 지속적으로 강화되고 있고, 특히 중국 견제를 위한 무역제한 조치는 더욱더 다양한 방법으로 추가 도입되고 있다. 미국의 수출통제 및 경제제재 관련 법률은 광범위한 역외관할권(Extraterritorial Jurisdiction)을 통해 국제무역에 상당한 영향을 미치고 있다. 특히, 이러한 무역 제한 조치들은 GATT 협정문의 원칙과도 저촉될 수 있다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 美정부는 미국의 무역 제한 조치는 국가안보 보호를 목적으로 시행된 조치이므로, GATT 안보예외(Security Exception)가 적용되어 GATT 협정문 위반이 아님을 주장할 수 있을 것이다. GATT XXI조에 있는 안보예외는 적용 범위가 불분명하고, 조항 內 핵심 용어에 대한 정의의 부재로 인하여 오랜 시간 동안 논란에 대상이 되어왔다. 일반적으로, GATT 안보예외는 자체판단조항(Self-Judging Provision)이라는 개념이 지배적이었으므로, 안보예외의 남용은 효과적으로 제한되지 못했다. 한편, 2019년 WTO 패널은 Russia - Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit 사건을 통해 GATT 안보예외에 대한 판결을 내렸는데, 이 판결은 GATT 안보예외의 적용 범위 및 해석에 대한 WTO의 최초 판결이다. 패널의 판결 내용은 GATT 안보예외 관련 분쟁 시 해당 조항 해석 관련 참고 목적으로 사용될 수 있으므로, GATT 안보예외 관련 큰 발전을 의미하기는 하나, WTO에는 선례구속의 원칙(System of Precedent)이 존재하지 않으므로, 향후 분쟁에 대한 구속력을 갖고 있지는 않다. 해당 판결은 GATT안보예외가 자체판단조항이 아님을 판시했지만, 해당 예외를 주장하는 국가의 안보예외 적용 요건 관련 상당 부분에 대한 재량권을 인정했다. 본 논문은 GATT 안보예외 관련 패널의 판결이 회원국들의 자국 안보 보호에 대한 권리와 자유/개방 무역에 대한 권리 사이에 체계적인 균형을 제공하고는 있으나, 오랜 기간 동안 논란이 되어온 안보예외의 핵심적인 문제점(자체 판단을 통한 안보예외 남용 가능성)을 해소하기에는 부족한 점이 있다고 주장한다. 본 논문은 GATT 안보예외의 잠재적 남용 가능성을 효과적으로 제한하기 위해, WTO는 더욱더 엄격한 심사기준을 도입하여야 한다고 주장하며, 심사기준의 대안을 제안한다.Since former President of the United States, Donald J. Trump, declared new trade policies based on an ideology of “trade protectionism”, the United States has been imposing aggressive unilateral economic sanctions and export controls under the notion of national security protection. While it is not the first time the United States has taken protectionist approaches to international trade, former President Trump’s trade policies seem to reflect an extreme version of trade protectionism in the modern world of open trade. After former President Trump assumed the presidency, economic sanctions and export controls have become the dominant part of the United States’ foreign policy. The U.S. economic sanctions have been evolving at an unprecedented pace over the last few years. In particular, the Trump Administration had strengthened sanctions programs to prohibit certain types of non-US entities’ dealings towards the targeted states or entities blacklisted by the U.S. Government. Moreover, the U.S. export control is currently in the process of a major expansion to cover broad categories of emerging and foundational technologies, which ultimately aims to control the release of the U.S. technologies to its rivals, such as China. The United States, under the Biden Administration, has been continuing these aggressive economic sanctions and export controls, and the trade protectionism initiated by the Trump Administration has been maintained as a central part of the U.S. foreign policy to date. The U.S. export controls and economic sanctions retain broad extraterritorial jurisdiction and have been significantly impacting global trades. In particular, these trade-restrictive measures are often found to be inconsistent with the GATT obligations. Nevertheless, the U.S. Government arguably should be able to invoke the security exception of the GATT by arguing that these measures are implemented for the protection of national security interests and thus should be justified under the security exception. The security exception of the GATT, which is provided under Article XXI of the GATT, has been controversial for a long time and subject to intense discussion due to the unclear scope and lack of clear definitions of key terms therein. There has been a general understanding that Article XXI of the GATT is a self-judging provision, and therefore, potentially abusive employment of the security exception has not been effectively controlled. However, the Panel in Russia - Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit delivered its rulings on Article XXI of the GATT, which is the very first attempt by the WTO to clarify the scope and ambit of the security exception. While such ruling reflects significant developments of the security exception as it confirms the justiciability of the security exception, it still acknowledges a substantial degree of the self-judging component of the security exception. This dissertation argues that while the review standard for the security exception of the GATT adopted by the Panel in Russia - Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit provides a great systemic balance between the member states’ interests in protecting their national security interests and their rights to free and open trade, it does not adequately solve the core problem of the security exception, which is the potentially abusive employment of the security exception due to the self-judging component of the exception. This dissertation further argues that the WTO needs to adopt a more reasonable and objective review standard for security exception disputes to effectively prevent the potential abuse of the security exception and proposes an appropriate review standard to that end.PART I. INTRODUCTION 1 A. Background 1 B. Purpose 6 C. Organization and Outline 9 PART II. TRADE-RESTRICTIVE MEASURES OF THE U.S. 12 A. The U.S. Export Controls 12 1. Overview 12 2. Export Controls Policies and Mechanisms 12 3. Export Administration Regulations 14 a. Overview 14 b. Scope of the EAR 14 c. Penalties 18 4. Major Developments since Trump Administration 19 a. Export Controls of Emerging and Foundational Technologies 19 b. Export Controls against China 22 i. Designation of Huawei on the Entity List 24 ii. Strengthened Controls on Exports to/for Military End User/End Use 26 B. The U.S. Economic Sanctions 28 1. Overview 28 2. Comprehensive Sanctions 32 a. Iran Sanctions 33 i. Primary Sanctions 34 ii. Secondary Sanctions 35 b. Cuba Sanctions 36 i. Primary Sanctions 36 ii. Secondary Sanctions 37 3. Major Developments since Trump Administration 38 a. Iran Sanctions 38 i. Re-imposition of Secondary Sanctions 38 ii. Expiration of the SRE Waivers 39 iii. Designation of Iranian Banks on the SDN List 40 b. Cuba Sanctions 41 i. Elimination of the “U-Turn” Transaction Authorization 42 ii. Amendments of the EAR to Strengthen Cuba Sanctions 43 PART III. LEGALITY UNDER PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW AND SECURITY EXCEPTIONS UNDER THE GATT 44 A. Legality under Public International Law 44 1. Overview 44 2. Inconsistency with the Principles of Public International Laws 45 3. Extraterritorial Jurisdiction 51 a. Extraterritorial Jurisdiction of the U.S. Export Controls 52 b. Extraterritorial Jurisdiction of the U.S. Economic Sanctions 53 c. Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Accepted under Customary International Law 55 4. Multilateral Efforts on Export Controls and Economic Sanctions 60 5. Role of the WTO to Review the Security Exception Matters 63 B. Security Exceptions under Article XXI of the GATT 69 1. Overview 69 2. Inconsistency with the GATT Obligations 71 3. Security Exception of the GATT and Fundamental Issues 72 a. Scope of the Security Exception 75 b. Self-Judging Provision 78 c. Review of Foreign Policy 81 d. Sovereignty vs Spirit of Multilateralism 84 4. Next Generations of Security Exceptions: Post-Article XXI of the GATT 87 a. Security Exceptions in BITs 88 b. Security Exceptions in FCN Treaties 92 5. The GATT/WTO Decisions on the Security Exception of the GATT 94 a. Prior Cases – Before Russia - Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit 95 b. Russia - Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit 96 PART IV. REVIEW STANDARDS FOR ARTICLE XXI OF THE GATT 102 A. Overview 102 B. Analysis of the WTO Panel’s Decisions on Article XXI of the GATT 105 1. Russia – Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit 105 2. Saudi Arabia – Measures Concerning the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights 109 C. Possible Alternative Review Standards for Article XXI of the GATT 115 1. Review Standards Applied in BIT/FCN Cases 115 2. Review Standards Suggested by Scholars 118 D. Proposed Review Standard for Article XXI of the GATT 127 E. Applying the Necessity Test to the Security Exception 133 1. Weighing and Balancing Test 135 a. Contribution of the Measures to the Realization of the End Pursued 135 b. Importance of the Interest that the Measure is Intended to Protect 138 c. Trade-Restrictive Impact of the Measure 140 2. Less Trade-Restrictive Alternative Means 142 F. Application of the Proposed Review Standard 144 1. The U.S. Export Controls 145 2. The U.S. Economic Sanctions 150 CONCLUSION 155 BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 ABSTRACT IN KOREAN (국문초록) 167박

Análisis comparativo de las propiedades físicas-mecánicas del mortero 1:2 y concreto 1:2:3 con adición de ceniza de cáscara de huevo

En el presente trabajo de investigación se hicieron análisis del comportamiento de la ceniza de cáscara de huevo como aditivo al mortero y el concreto hidráulicos. Se realizaron ensayos de laboratorio para conocer las propiedades físico-mecánicas de la ceniza utilizada siguiendo los pasos dictados por la normativa. Durante el periodo de elaboración se dosificaron morteros con y sin el aditivo de ceniza de cáscara de huevo para la búsqueda del porcentaje de adición con mayor resistencia a la compresión.Introducción. -- 1. Descripción del Problema. -- 1.1. Formulación del Problema. -- 2. Justificación. --3. Objetivos. -- 3.1. Objetivo General. --3.2. Objetivos Específicos. -- 4. Marco de Referencia. -- 4.1. Marco Teórico. -- 4.2. Estado del Arte. -- 5. Metodología. -- 5.1. Tipo y Nivel de Investigación. -- 5.2. Población y Muestra de Diseño. -- 5.3. Diseño de Investigación. -- 5.4. Estudio Previo del Consumo del Huevo y el Uso de su Cáscara. -- 5.5. Proceso de Obtención del Material Útil. -- 5 6. Materiales Para la Elaboración de Mezclas de Mortero y Concreto. -- 5.7. Proceso de Curado NTC 118. -- 5.8. Ensayo a la Compresión. -- 5.9. Ensayo de Durabilidad del Concreto NTC 5551. -- 6. Análisis de Resultados. -- 6.1. Estudio Previo del Consumo del Huevo y Uso de su Cáscara. -- 6.2. Material Útil y Puro Obtenido. -- 6.3. Cantidad de Materiales Para la Elaboración de Mezclas de Mortero y Concreto. -- 6.4. Ensayo a la Compresión. -- 6.5. Ensayo de Durabilidad del Concreto NTC 5551. -- 7. Conclusiones. -- 8. Recomendaciones. -- Bibliografía. -- Anexos

Accountability and narratives in historical settings

The critical and interpretative accounting studies on accountability constitute the basis for the development of the three papers of this Ph.D. thesis. Connected from a thematic and a methodological perspective, these three archival based researches explore different aspects of accountability. The attention moves progressively from exploring a retrospective storytelling as an informal media of accountability; to comparing this informal narrative with those contained in the formal media; to finally study different forms through which accountability can be practiced. While the first and the second papers focuses on the role played by stories and narratives in the provision of accountability, the third paper enlarges the focus to explore the relation between narratives and accounting in the provision of accountability. In this thesis accounting is conceived as a discourse where specific rules are applied, a social practice and a technique, that may be used in the accountability discourse

An interaction abstraction toolkit for public display applications

Tese de doutoramento em Tecnologias e Sistemas de InformaçãoPublic digital displays have become increasingly ubiquitous in our technological landscape. Considering their flexibility and communication potential, public displays can become an important communication channel and even reach the attention, usage, and relevance that smartphones have today. Interaction with public displays is recognised as a key element in making them more engaging and valuable, but most public display systems still do not support any interactive feature. A key reason behind this apparent paradox is the lack of efficient and clear abstractions for incorporating interactivity into public display applications. While interaction can be achieved for a specific display system with a particular interaction modality, the lack of proper interaction abstractions means that there is too much specific work that needs to be done outside the core application functionality to support even basic forms of interaction. In this work, we investigate and develop interaction abstractions for public displays. We start by analysing public displays from the point of view of the information that results from the various interactions and that can be used to drive several types of content adaptation behaviour on public displays. We call this information digital footprints, and the result is a framework that maps digital footprints to adaptation strategies and to interaction mechanisms. This framework can be used by display designers to help them choose the interaction mechanisms that a display should support in order to be able to collect a given set of footprints, creating more relevant displays that are able to automatically adapt to their environment. We then identify and characterise interaction tasks and controls that are appropriate for public display interaction. This analysis results in a design space that can form the foundation of interaction toolkits, giving system developers with a reference for the types of high-level tasks and controls that can be incorporated into a toolkit. Finally, we design, implement, and evaluate a software toolkit of interaction abstractions for public display applications – the PuReWidgets toolkit. Programmers can use this toolkit to easily incorporate interactive features into their web-based public display applications. PuReWidgets provides high-level abstractions that shield programmers from the low-level details of the interaction mechanisms. We evaluate this toolkit along various dimensions. First, we evaluate the system’s performance. We then evaluate the API’s flexibility and capabilities using our own experience in developing interactive applications with it. We also evaluate the API’s usability from the perspective of independent programmers. Finally, we provide an evaluation of the resulting system’s usability from the perspective of an end-user interacting with a real-world deployment of a public display. The evaluation results indicate that PuReWidgets is an efficient, usable, and flexible toolkit for web-based interactive public display applications. By making this toolkit publicly available, we hope to promote the development of more and newer kinds of interactive public display applications inside and, more importantly, outside the research community.Os ecrãs públicos digitais estão cada vez mais presentes na nossa paisagem tecnológica. Considerando a sua flexibilidade e capacidade de ligação em rede, os ecrãs públicos têm o potencial para se tornarem num importante canal de comunicação e talvez até atingir a atenção, utilização e relevância que os smartphones têm hoje em dia. A interactividade dos ecrãs públicos ´e reconhecida como um elemento chave para os tornar mais atractivos e valiosos, mas a maioria dos sistemas de ecrãs públicos actuais ainda não suporta nenhuma forma de interação. Uma razão por detrás deste aparente paradoxo é a falta de abstrações claras e eficientes para incorporar interactividade nas aplicações para ecrãs públicos. Apesar de a interação poder ser conseguida para sistemas específicos, com uma modalidade de interação específica, a falta de abstrações de interação apropriadas significa que ´e necessário demasiado trabalho específico fora das funcionalidades nucleares da aplicação para suportar ate as formas mais básicas de interação. Neste trabalho, investigamos e desenvolvemos abstrações de interação para ecrãs públicos. Começamos por analisar os ecrãs públicos do ponto de vista da informação que resulta das interações e de que forma pode ser utilizada em procedimentos de adaptação de conteúdo para ecrãs públicos. Chamamos a esta informação digital footprints, e o resultado é uma estrutura conceptual que mapeia as digital footprints em estratégias de adaptação e em mecanismos de interação. Esta estrutura pode ser utilizada por designers de ecrãs públicos para ajudar a escolher os mecanismos de interação que um determinado ecrã deve suportar de forma a poder recolher um determinado conjunto de digital footprints, criando assim ecrãs com conteúdos mais relevantes e que são capazes de se adaptar ao seu ambiente social. De seguida, identificamos e caracterizamos tarefas de interação e controlos apropriados para interação com ecrãs públicos. Esta análise resulta num espaço de desenho que pode servir de base para toolkits de interação, dando uma referência aos designers do sistema para os tipos de controlos que podem ser incorporados no toolkit. Finalmente, projectamos, implementamos e avaliamos um toolkit de abstrações de interação para aplicações para ecrãs públicos – o toolkit PuReWidgets. Os programadores podem utilizar este toolkit para incorporar facilmente funcionalidades interactivas nas suas aplicações, baseadas na web, para ecrãs públicos. O PuReWidgets fornece abstrações de alto nível que protegem os programadores dos detalhes de baixo nível associados aos mecanismos de interação. O toolkit é avaliado segundo várias dimensões. Primeiro, avaliamos o desempenho do sistema. De seguida, avaliamos a flexibilidade e capacidades da API, usando a nossa própria experiencia no desenvolvimento de aplicações interactivas. Avaliamos também a usabilidade da API da perspectiva de programadores independentes. Finalmente, avaliamos o toolkit da perspectiva dos utilizadores que interagem com um ecrã público num ambiente real. Os resultados da avaliação indicam que o PuReWidgets é um toolkit eficiente, flexível e usável para aplicações interactivas para ecrãs públicos. Ao tornar este toolkit disponível publicamente, esperamos promover o desenvolvimento de mais aplicações interactivas para ecrãs públicos dentro e, mais importante, fora da comunidade de investigação.This research was supported by the Funda¸c˜ao para a Ciˆencia e Tecnologia (FCT) PhD training grant SFRH/BD/47354/2008. This research has also received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 244011 (PD-Net)

ECRA co-editors' introduction for Vol. 9, Issue 4, July-August 2010

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