Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

A multidisciplinary investigation into socioeconomic variation in behaviour

PhD ThesisSocioeconomic differences in behaviour are widely documented, but are not yet well understood. I propose that they can be better understood by using concepts from evolutionary theory. Evolutionary theory predicts that mortality risk should be important in determining life history traits such as the scheduling of growth and reproduction. An extension of this concept is that mortality risk should influence the degree to which people value benefits and costs in the present versus those in the future. Thus, many socioeconomic differences in behaviour may represent differences in time perspective, generated by inequalities in mortality risk. This raises the question of what cues evolved psychological mechanisms rely on when forming their estimates of personal mortality risk. I first report a test of the hypothesis that the deaths of others are used as a cue to mortality risk. The results showed that experiences of close bereavement are associated with steeper future discounting and earlier ideal, and actual, reproductive timing (Chapter 2). I then report the results of two experimental tests of whether the ages of others might be used as an indicator of local mortality rates. Manipulating the age profiles of sets of faces viewed in laboratory experiments did not have a clear effect on future discounting or reported ideal reproductive timing (Chapter 3). I move on to testing the hypothesis that the controllability of mortality risks should be most important for behaviour. The results of a correlational study showed that perceived extrinsic mortality risk mediated the association between socioeconomic status and effort spent looking after health (Chapter 4). I then report three experiments that demonstrate that priming participants to feel that prevailing sources of mortality risk are, or are not, controllable alters a simple health behaviour – the choice of a healthy food reward (Chapter 5). Finally, I review the bigger picture of socioeconomic differences in behaviour. I explain how the lack of control associated with lower socioeconomic status may lead to present-oriented behaviour in a range of domains – a phenomenon that I have called the Behavioural Constellation of Deprivation. I highlight some principles from evolutionary theoretical models that can deepen our understanding of how socioeconomic inequalities can become amplified and embedded. I discuss mechanisms by which extrinsic mortality risk may influence behaviour. I then review the evidence in support of my position, highlighting the fact that many researchers working from different perspectives have converged on control and time perspective as explanations for socioeconomic differences in behaviour. I finish by discussing the wider implications of my thesis and some of the related questions which could be answered in future research (Chapter 6 & 7)

The role of interpersonal control and need thwarting in the prediction of ill-being in sport: a self-determination theory approach

Utilizing self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2002) as a framework, the current thesis aimed to explore the social conditions that satisfy versus thwart psychological needs and, in turn, impact upon psychological and physiological functioning and well/ill-being in the sport context. Although research guided by SDT has explored the conditions (i.e., autonomy support) and psychological processes (i.e., need satisfaction) that foster healthy development and effective functioning in athletes, very little research has considered the potential role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting in the development of athlete ill-being. To address these limitations, this thesis begins by outlining the development and initial validation of two new questionnaire measures: the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (Chapter 2) and the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (Chapter 3). The new questionnaire measures were subsequently utilized in three studies, reported in Chapter 4. Across all three samples, need satisfaction was better predicted by autonomy-supportive behaviors, and need thwarting was better predicted by coach control. In turn, athletes’ perceptions of need satisfaction predicted positive outcomes (i.e., vitality and positive affect) whereas need thwarting consistently better predicted maladaptive outcomes (i.e., disordered eating, burnout, depression, negative affect, physical symptoms, and perturbed physiological functioning). Such novel findings indicate that controlling interpersonal behaviors and psychological need thwarting represent important aspects of the SDT framework which must be further researched (both in sport and in other life domains) if the development of diminished functioning and ill-being is to be properly understood

Exploiting physiological changes during the flow experience for assessing virtual-reality game design.

Immersive experiences are considered the principal attraction of video games. Achieving a healthy balance between the game's demands and the user's skills is a particularly challenging goal. However, it is a coveted outcome, as it gives rise to the flow experience – a mental state of deep concentration and game engagement. When this balance fractures, the player may experience considerable disinclination to continue playing, which may be a product of anxiety or boredom. Thus, being able to predict manifestations of these psychological states in video game players is essential for understanding player motivation and designing better games. To this end, we build on earlier work to evaluate flow dynamics from a physiological perspective using a custom video game. Although advancements in this area are growing, there has been little consideration given to the interpersonal characteristics that may influence the expression of the flow experience. In this thesis, two angles are introduced that remain poorly understood. First, the investigation is contextualized in the virtual reality domain, a technology that putatively amplifies affective experiences, yet is still insufficiently addressed in the flow literature. Second, a novel analysis setup is proposed, whereby the recorded physiological responses and psychometric self-ratings are combined to assess the effectiveness of our game's design in a series of experiments. The analysis workflow employed heart rate and eye blink variability, and electroencephalography (EEG) as objective assessment measures of the game's impact, and self-reports as subjective assessment measures. These inputs were submitted to a clustering method, cross-referencing the membership of the observations with self-report ratings of the players they originated from. Next, this information was used to effectively inform specialized decoders of the flow state from the physiological responses. This approach successfully enabled classifiers to operate at high accuracy rates in all our studies. Furthermore, we addressed the compression of medium-resolution EEG sensors to a minimal set required to decode flow. Overall, our findings suggest that the approaches employed in this thesis have wide applicability and potential for improving game designing practices

A multicomponential examination of tennis players’ emotional responses to music

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.The principal aim of this research programme was to examine multiple components of competitive tennis players’ emotional responses to pre-performance music. To this end, four objectives were defined: First, to develop a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) of players’ use of music to manipulate emotional state; second, to examine the impact of altering music tempo and intensity on players’ affective and behavioural responses; third, to identify neural origins for these phenomena; and fourth, to elucidate the role of motoneuron excitability in behavioural responses observed. These objectives were realised in four interrelated studies. First, 14 players provided quantitative and qualitative interview, questionnaire, and diary data to detail their use of personally emotive music; a grounded theory and associated model were consequently developed to facilitate future research and practice. Participants used music to attain five broad emotional states, including psyched-up; this was associated with faster tempi and louder intensities (volumes). Study 2 was conceived to examine the effects of manipulating these variables on 54 players’ affective and behavioural states, using measures based on Russell’s (1980) affective circumplex and reaction times (RTs). Faster tempi elicited higher valence and arousal, loud intensity yielded higher arousal and shorter RTs; and higher arousal was associated with shorter RTs. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was utilised in Study 3 to identify neural bases for 12 participants’ emotional responses to the same music manipulations; emotion-processing, visuomotor and sensorimotor structures were activated under high-arousal conditions. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and electromyography were used in Study 4 to investigate changes in 10 participants’ corticospinal excitability as a result of listening to purposively selected music; optimised music elicited higher arousal and reduced corticospinal response latencies. The foremost contribution of this thesis is to show that music variables may be carefully selected and/or manipulated to maximise performance-facilitating emotional responses to music in tennis

Conceptualizing Emotion Within Physical Education: Exploration of Antecedents and Outcomes Using the Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions

Investigating student emotions has gained attention in motivational literature because they represent mechanisms for interpreting experiences and behaviors. Physical education (PE) is critical to promoting skills and positive experiences that lead to an active and healthy lifestyle. Yet, in PE there is a dearth of information and theoretical evaluation of student emotions. To address this gap, this dissertation uses the control value theory of achievement emotions (CVTAE) as a lens to investigate student emotions, antecedents, and outcomes in PE-related settings. The purpose of Study 1 was to investigate effects of an attribution-training treatment on participants’ emotions and motivation toward a PE-related task. The experimental design tested appraisals of control as an antecedent of emotion. Female college students (N=144) were randomly allocated to three treatment groups: high-attribution (internal, high control; n=46), low-attribution (external, low control; n=49), and control (n=49), and asked to complete a novel physical task. The treatment consisted of video, feedback, and a written prompt. Results showed that students in the high-attribution group reported higher levels of enjoyment and lower levels of boredom following treatment, compared to the other groups. Group differences were not found regarding free-choice behavior. The purpose of Study 2 was to examine relationships between student emotions in PE and self-reported in-class engagement, disruptive behavior, and leisure-time physical activity. Middle school students (N= 401) completed a longitudinal study evaluating relationships between emotions (enjoyment, pride, relief, anger, boredom, and shame) and outcomes. Results demonstrated unique associations between emotions and outcomes. Specifically, shame predicted higher behavioral engagement and less disruptive behavior, but had a negative relationship with leisure-time physical activity. However, effect sizes revealed that emotions explained small amounts of variance in these outcomes. This dissertation highlights three important areas: (a) significance of discrete emotions, (b) testing major assumptions of CVTAE, and (c) teachers modulating emotion. Discrete emotions present unique relationships with antecedents and outcomes. However, evidence for CVTAE was stronger for antecedents than for outcomes. Lastly, teachers may modulate emotional experiences of students using attribution training. In doing so, PE teachers can potentially facilitate higher levels of student motivation by enhancing adaptive and decreasing maladaptive student emotions

The role and development of life skills in young sports participants

Under the umbrella of positive youth development, life skills represent an important area of research for young people. The personal competencies a young person possesses determine his or her capacity to effectively navigate the turbulence of adolescence and grow into adulthood. An increased understanding of the role, function, and enhancement of life skills therefore serves a great purpose in the design and evaluation of youth development programs. This thesis aimed to extend the current knowledge and practices through targeting the gaps in the life skills literature. First, using a qualitative design, the specific needs of young elite athletes were investigated while outlining a proposed methodology for future needs analyses. The importance of developing life skills in young athletes was emphasised as it was found that young athletes required a range of both sport specific and life skills. Second, an investigation into the function of life skills found that reported possession of key life skills partially mediates the relationship between youth experiences and well-being, illustrating this role for the first time. However, within youth samples there was a broad range in the degree to which these skills are applied and transferred, reinforcing the call for deliberate developmental programming. The lack of adequate measures in life skills research was addressed through the validation of BRSQ with young sports participants. Support for the utility of this measure allows for the greater investigation into the mechanisms through which life skills function. Finally, a life skills program was designed following the recommendations of the predominant youth development frameworks and comprehensively evaluated. This thesis progresses existing literature regarding the role and function of life skills as well as providing insight into how to best promote and evaluate the teaching of life skills in applied research programs

Autonomy and autonomy disturbances in self-development and psychopathology: research on motivation, attachment, and clinical process

Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that the adequate support and satisfaction of individuals' psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness promotes the gradual unfolding of individuals' integrative tendencies, as manifested through intrinsic motivation, internalization, identity development, and integrative emotion regulation. At the same time, the thwarting of these same psychological needs and the resultant need frustration is presumed to evoke or amplify a variety of psychopathologies, many of which involve autonomy disturbances. We begin by defining what autonomy involves and how socializing agents, particularly parents, can provide a nurturing (i.e., need-supportive) environment, and we review research within the SDT literature that has shed light on various integrative tendencies and how caregivers facilitate them. In the second part of this chapter, we detail how many forms of psychopathology involve autonomy disturbances and are associated with a history of psychological need thwarting. We especially focus on internally controlling regulation in internalizing disorders; impairments of internalization in conduct disorders and antisocial behavior; and fragmented self-functioning in borderline and dissociative disorders. The role of autonomy support as an ameliorative factor in treatment settings is then discussed among other translational issues. Finally we highlight some implications of recognizing the important role of basic psychological needs for both growth-related and pathology-related processes

Coaches' Interpersonal Behaviours and Athletes' Basic Psychological Need States: Refined Conceptualisation and Measurement Based on a Self-Determination Theory Perspective

Athletes’ perceptions of coaches’ interpersonal behaviours and their own experiential need states determine the quality of their motivation in sport (Self-determination Theory; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Over five empirical studies, two new self-report measures were developed based on refined conceptualisations of these key constructs, and initial validity evidence was presented for their scores. Results facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the relations between perceived interpersonal behaviours, need states and outcomes of well/ill-being in sport, and potentially other life domains

Examining Eudaimonic Well-Being in Sport

The general purpose of this dissertation was to examine eudaimonic well-being in sport. This dissertation was divided into three studies. Study 1 was designed to develop a sport-specific eudaimonic well-being measurement tool (EWBSS; Eudaimonic Well-Being in Sport Scale) and included three phases. During Phase 1, 19 items were created by two investigators and five of these items were selected by five experts to represent eudaimonic well-being in sport. Phase 2 assessed the factorial validity and reliability of the EWBSS on a large sample (N = 400) with competitive level athletes from various individual and team sports with results demonstrating initial evidence for both factorial validity and reliability. Phase 3 further tested the factorial validity, nomological validity, convergent validity, and reliability of the EWBSS with two independent samples (i.e., competitive and recreational athletes). The findings provided support for the psychometric properties of the EWBSS in competitive athletes and partial support for the validity and reliability of the EWBSS in recreational athletes. The purpose of Study 2 was to investigate the association between motivation and eudaimonic well-being, based on self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985). The relationship between motivation and eudaimonic well-being was tested using a latent variable model through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Three hundred ninety-nine athletes (Mage = 25.08, SD = 7.35) from 15 different individual and team sports completed a questionnaire package. Integrated, identified, and external regulations positively predicted athletes’ eudaimonic well-being, while introjected regulation and amotivation negatively predicted athletes’ eudaimonic well-being. Additionally, intrinsic motivation was not a significant predictor of eudaimonic well-being. Study 3 investigated the effectiveness of an imagery intervention on eudaimonic well-being in soccer. Five female varsity level soccer players (Mage = 19.80, SD = 1.64) participated in the study. Each athlete engaged in eight individual imagery sessions (i.e., intervention phase) aimed at increasing eudaimonic well-being. Visual and statistical analyses revealed a small increase in eudaimonic well-being for two participants. Post-intervention interviews showed that the imagery intervention was perceived by all participants as beneficial for their well-being at both sport-specific and general levels