Embedded charge for microswitch applications

In this work a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) is proposed for radio frequency (RF) switching applications. MEMS devices outperform the traditionally used solid-state devices in areas such as isolation, insertion loss, and linearity. However, micro switches suffer from high actuation voltage, lifetime limitations, and high packaging cost. A novel micro switch design that incorporates embedded charge in a cantilever structure can, in principle, enable low-voltage operation. This was the primary motivation for this stud

RF-MEMS Switches Designed for High-Performance Uniplanar Microwave and mm-Wave Circuits

Radio frequency microelectromechanical system (RF-MEMS) switches have demonstrated superior electrical performance (lower loss and higher isolation) compared to semiconductor-based devices to implement reconfigurable microwave and millimeter (mm)-wave circuits. In this chapter, electrostatically actuated RF-MEMS switch configurations that can be easily integrated in uniplanar circuits are presented. The design procedure and fabrication process of RF-MEMS switch topologies able to control the propagating modes of multimodal uniplanar structures (those based on a combination of coplanar waveguide (CPW), coplanar stripline (CPS), and slotline) will be described in detail. Generalized electrical (multimodal) and mechanical models will be presented and applied to the switch design and simulation. The switch-simulated results are compared to measurements, confirming the expected performances. Using an integrated RF-MEMS surface micromachining process, high-performance multimodal reconfigurable circuits, such as phase switches and filters, are developed with the proposed switch configurations. The design and optimization of these circuits are discussed and the simulated results compared to measurements

Microelectromechanical Systems and Devices

The advances of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and devices have been instrumental in the demonstration of new devices and applications, and even in the creation of new fields of research and development: bioMEMS, actuators, microfluidic devices, RF and optical MEMS. Experience indicates a need for MEMS book covering these materials as well as the most important process steps in bulk micro-machining and modeling. We are very pleased to present this book that contains 18 chapters, written by the experts in the field of MEMS. These chapters are groups into four broad sections of BioMEMS Devices, MEMS characterization and micromachining, RF and Optical MEMS, and MEMS based Actuators. The book starts with the emerging field of bioMEMS, including MEMS coil for retinal prostheses, DNA extraction by micro/bio-fluidics devices and acoustic biosensors. MEMS characterization, micromachining, macromodels, RF and Optical MEMS switches are discussed in next sections. The book concludes with the emphasis on MEMS based actuators

CMOS Closed-loop Control of MEMS Varactors

A closed-loop capacitance sensing and control mix-mode circuit with a dedicated sensor electrode and a proportional-integral controller was designed for MEMS varactors. The control was based on tuning the bias magnitude of the MEMS varactor according to

Characterization, modeling and reliability of RF MEMS Switches and Photovoltaic Silicon Solar Cells

The main goal of this thesis is the failure and reliability investigation of RF-MEMS switches and photovoltaic solar cells. For technical developer people the reliability issue is often consider a secondary problem in electronic devices since it is not considered an important factor in the production chain. This concept is changing is the last years because reliability studies are considered an important technological step to improve the production process. This fact is confirmed by the investments that companies adopt to test their products. In the particular case of this thesis, we can easily mention the solar cell production line where the cells are subjected to reliability tests that extrapolate the efficiency and the fill factor in order to study the performances and to consequently improve the production process. Concerning RF MEMS Wireless communication systems for space applications require electronic components with a high level of reliability, a low power consumption and they should be as small as possible in order to be better integrated in satellites. Radio Frequency Micro Electro Mechanical System (RF-MEMS) can be considered one of the best candidates to comply with previous requirements and, under certain conditions, they can completely replace an entire solid-state circuit. RF-MEM devices in general are characterized by a good miniaturization, an easily integration in a standard solid-state circuit, an almost zero power consumption, a good RF linearity and a high quality factor Q. Concerning RF-MEMS switches RF performances, they exhibit a very low insertion loss, lower than 0.1 dBm up to 60 GHz and, at the same time, a good isolation, more than 20 dBm. From an electrical and mechanical point of view the power consumption of these switches is close to zero because of an “on-state” current around pA and they are almost unaffected by high level of acceleration or deceleration because of their mass that is extremely small. The possibility to integrate the production of these devices in the standard foundry silicon processes and their integration with mature semiconductor technology are a great advantage for their spread making possible to produce them in an easy and cheap way. Over the last 10 years important developments on MEMS switches have been done all over the world. As a matter of fact, these switches are quite attractive since they combine excellent RF performances and low power consumption of mechanical switches with the small size and low weight of semiconductor devices. However, the appearance of MEMS switches on the market has been hindered by the need for specific packaging as well as by reliability issues. Reliability is a major issue for any satellite since it is almost impossible to envisage any repair work once the spacecraft has been launched. Hence, reliability is a key driver when designing any RF equipment. If we consider a RF-MEMS switch, we have to guarantee that his electromechanical performances will be the same after an intensive usage in harsh environment, for instance after millions or billions of cycles and after the exposure to different kind of radiations. In case of their application in a redundancy scheme, they have to be completely operative even after a long period of activity or inactivity. The aim of this thesis is to perform an electrical characterization and several reliability tests on different kind of RF-MEMS switches in order to analyze which are the weaknesses and the strengths of this new technology. Electrical characterizations have been done using two different measurement systems. The first, based on a vector network analyzer and a power supply, has been used to test the RF performances of the devices and to extract the actuation and deactuation voltages. The second set up, based on the internal RF signal generator of the VNA, an 8-GHz digital signal oscilloscope and a profilometer (polytec MSA 500), has been used to characterize the electrical performances like actuation time, release delay and dynamic performances. Cycling stress, one of the most common test used to understand the robustness of this kind of devices, has been performed on different topologies of switch in order to better understand how some parameters of the RF MEMS switch, such as the shape of the beams or the actuation voltage, impact on the reliability of the device. Furthermore, the influence of continuous actuation stress on the reliability of dielectric-less switches has been investigated, comparing different designs and studying the variation of the main electrical parameters induced by the stress and the successive recovery phase. Concerning PV solar cells A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: (i) the absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons, (ii) the separation of charge carriers of opposite types and (iii) the extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. Over the last decades, many research groups have tried to improve the conversion processes in order to increase the efficiency of solar cells and to reduce the parasitic effects that limit the energy conversion. This has generated a real challenge to the best conversion efficiency. The average efficiency of multicrystalline silicon solar cells at the beginning of 2014 was about 16% but in research labs different solar cells have exceeded the 20% with records over 24%. The continuous growth of the solar cells efficiency has been achieved thanks to the reliability study of the single cells and to the degradation analysis of the real photovoltaic systems. These studies have revealed the critical points of PV solar cells and have led to a constant improvement of the production processes. The aim of this thesis is the study of the reliability problems related to a single solar cell and to a string of solar cells subjected to different illumination conditions. Different characterization procedures have been developed in order to study the failure mechanisms and to study the weaknesses and the strengths of the technology. Four types of measurement set-ups have been utilized: (i) the first system is able to extract the IV curves in dark and light conditions. This simple measurement procedure has to be opportunely calibrated in order to obtain right results in term of efficiency and fill factor. (ii) The second system extracts the thermographic image of a single solar cell. It can be used to analyze hot spot and other failure mechanisms in the silicon structure. (iii) The third system extracts the electroluminescence and the photoluminescence of a single solar cell. It is able to extract and analyze the defects in the crystalline structure of the materials. (iv) The fourth is the LOANA system: a commercial tool able to extract the External Quantum Efficiency and the Internal Quantum Efficiency with the measurement of the reflectance. All these characterization procedures have been utilized to study the evolution of the failure mechanisms when a single solar cell is subjected to reverse biasing stresses. The study of the catastrophic degradation of solar cells submitted to reverse current stress is of crucial importance since the failure can lead to the rapid increase of the temperature with a consequent risk of fire and to the breaking of the entire PV system. This particular situation can occur when the PV system is not uniformly illuminated and the solar cells of the system present not uniform shunt resistance. Additional studies have been performed in the modelization of a solar cell with the two-diode model. The study and modeling of solar cells allow to obtain right results in term of efficiency and fill factor extrapolation. Moreover, the modelization allows the study of string of solar cells working in particular conditions in which the illumination level is not uniform in a whole panel. The simulations allow to predict the dangerous situations and to design appropriate prevention systems

MEMS Switches Implemented in Different Technologies for RF Applications

Microfabrication technologies allow building micro-scale and nano-scale mechanical switches. Despite the fact that the solid-state switches exhibit superior performance as compared to their micro-mechanical competitors in terms of speed and lifetime, mechanical switches exhibit various attractive features such as low power consumption, high linearity, high isolation and low loss. This work summarizes the design, fabrication and testing of several micro-mechanical switches for Radio Frequency (RF) applications and using different microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technologies. The implementation is carried out through four approaches for realizing MEMS switches. In the first approach, the switches are built by post-processing chips fabricated in a standard complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication process. The structural layers of the electrostatic MEMS switches are implemented in the four metal layers of the back end of line (BEOL) in the standard CMOS 0.35µm process. In addition, an enhanced post-processing technique is developed and implemented successfully. The switches presented include a compact 4-bit capacitor bank, a compact 4-bit phase shifter / delay line, a W-band single pole single through (SPST) series capacitive switch, SPST shunt capacitive switches with enhanced capacitance density, and a proposed compact T-switch cell with metal-to-metal contact switches. In the second approach, a standard multi-user MEMS process is implemented. Electrothermal and electrostatic MEMS switches designed, fabricated and tested for low-frequency high-power RF applications using the MetalMUMPs process. The devices include a 3-bit capacitor bank, a compact discrete capacitor bank that can be configured for 2-bit / 3-bit operation depending on the stroke of the electrothermal actuators, and a novel rotor-based electrostatic multi-port switch. In the third approach, an in-house university-based microfabrication process is developed in order to build reliable MEMS switches. The UWMEMS process, which was developed at the Center for Integrated RF Engineering (CIRFE), is used in this research to fabricate novel switch configurations. Moreover, the capabilities of the standard UWMEMS process are further expanded in order to allow for building geometric confinement (GC) or anchorless switches and other novel switches. The gold-based UWMEMS switches presented include compact T-switches, R-switches and C-switches, GC SPST shunt and series switches. Additionally, other novel switch architectures such as the hybrid self-actuation switch (HSAS) and thermally-restored switches (TRS). In the fourth approach, which is a hybrid approach between the first and third approaches, the MEMS switches are built and packaged in one fabrication process, and without the need for sacrificial layer, by means of a wafer-level packaging technique. Adopting silicon wafers for the microfabrication necessitates using silicon-core switching, which offers few attractive advantages as compared to the metal-based switches implemented by the third approach. The designed switches to be fabricated in a state-of-the-art industrial facility include a variety of simple SPST contact-type switches as well as compact designs of T-switch, C-switch, a novel four-port gimbal-based switch (G-switch) introduced in this work, SP4T cells, and a seesaw push-pull SPST switch design is included

Characterisation and modelling of degradation mechanisms in RF MEMS capacitive switches during hold-down operation

RF MEMS switches represent an attractive alternative technology to current mechanical (e.g. coaxial and waveguide) and solid-state (e.g. PIN diode and FET transistor) RF switch technologies. The materials and fabrication techniques used in MEMS manufacture enable mechanically moveable devices with high RF performance to be fabricated on a miniature scale. However, the operation of these devices is affected by several mechanical and electrical reliability concerns which limit device lifetimes and have so far prevented the widespread adoption and commercialisation of RF MEMS. While a significant amount of research and development on RF MEMS reliability has been performed in recent years, the degradation mechanisms responsible for these reliability concerns are still poorly understood. This is due to the multi-physical nature of MEMS switches where multiple mechanical and electrical degradation mechanisms can simultaneously affect device behaviour with no clear way of distinguishing between their individual effects. As such, little progress has been made in proposing solutions to these reliability concerns. While some RF MEMS switches have recently been commercialised, their success has come at the expense of decreased performance due to design changes necessarily imposed to prevent device failure. However, more high performance switches could be developed if the mechanisms responsible for reliability problems could be understood and solved. The work of this thesis is focussed on the isolation and study of individual reliability mechanisms in RF MEMS capacitive switches. A bipolar hold-down technique is used to minimise the effects of dielectric charging and allow mechanical degradation to be studied in isolation in aluminium-based capacitive switches. An investigation of mechanical degradation leads to the identification of grain boundary sliding as the physical process responsible for the decreased mechanical performance of a switch. An alternative material for the switch movable electrode is investigated and shown to be mechanically robust. The effects of dielectric charging are isolated from mechanical degradation using mechanically robust switches. The isolated investigation of dielectric charging leads to the identification of two major charging mechanisms which take place at the bulk and surface of the dielectric, respectively. The exchange of charge from interface traps is identified as the physical mechanism responsible for bulk dielectric charging. An investigation of surface dielectric charging reveals how this reliability concern depends on the structure and design of a switch. Finally, electrical and material means of minimising dielectric charging are investigated. The findings and results presented in this thesis represent a significant contribution to the state-of the- art understanding of RF MEMS capacitive switch reliability. By implementing the design changes and material solutions proposed in this work, the performance and lifetime of RF MEMS capacitive switches can be greatly improved

Effects of electrical leakage currents on MEMS reliability and performance

Electrostatically driven MEMS devices commonly operate with electric fields as high at 108 V/m applied across the dielectric between electrodes. Even with the best mechanical design, the electrical design of these devices has a large impact both on performance (e.g., speed and stability) and on reliability (e.g., corrosion and dielectric or gas breakdown). In this paper, we discuss the reliability and performance implications of leakage currents in the bulk and on the surface of the dielectric insulating the drive (or sense) electrodes from one another. Anodic oxidation of poly-silicon electrodes can occur very rapidly in samples that are not hermetically packaged. The accelerating factors are presented along with an efficient early-warning scheme. The relationship between leakage currents and the accumulation of quasistatic charge in dielectrics are discussed, along with several techniques to mitigate charging and the associated drift in electrostatically actuated or sensed MEMS devices. Two key parameters are shown to be the electrode geometry and the conductivity of the dielectric. Electrical breakdown in submicron gaps is presented as a function of packaging gas and electrode spacing. We discuss the tradeoffs involved in choosing gap geometries and dielectric properties that balance performance and reliability