Toward a script theory of guidance in computer-supported collaborative learning

This article presents an outline of a script theory of guidance for computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). With its four types of components of internal and external scripts (play, scene, role, and scriptlet) and seven principles, this theory addresses the question how CSCL practices are shaped by dynamically re-configured internal collaboration scripts of the participating learners. Furthermore, it explains how internal collaboration scripts develop through participation in CSCL practices. It emphasizes the importance of active application of subject matter knowledge in CSCL practices, and it prioritizes transactive over non-transactive forms of knowledge application in order to facilitate learning. Further, the theory explains how external collaboration scripts modify CSCL practices and how they influence the development of internal collaboration scripts. The principles specify an optimal scaffolding level for external collaboration scripts and allow for the formulation of hypotheses about the fading of external collaboration scripts. Finally, the article points towards conceptual challenges and future research questions

Towards Feasible Instructor Intervention in MOOC discussion forums

Massive Open Online Courses allow numerous people from around the world to have access to knowledge that they otherwise have not. However, high student-to-instructor ratio in MOOCs restricts instructors’ ability to facilitate student learning by intervening in discussions forums, as they do in face-to-face classrooms. Instructors need automated guidance on when and how to intervene in discussion forums. Using a typology of pedagogical interventions derived from prior research, we annotate a large corpus of discussion forum contents to enable supervised machine learning to automatically identify interventions that promote student learning. Such machine learning models may allow building of dashboards to automatically prompt instructors on when and how to intervene in discussion forums. In the longer term, it may be possible to automate these interventions relieving instructors of this effort. Such automated approaches are essential for allowing good pedagogical practices to scale in the context of MOOC discussion forums

Facebook as learning platform: Argumentation superhighway or dead-end street?

Facebook and other Social Network Sites are often seen by educators as multifunctional platforms that can be used for teaching, learning and/or the facilitation of both. One such strand is making use of them as tools/platforms for using and learning through argumentation and discussion. Research on whether this ‘promise’ is actually achieved – also the research reported on in this Special Issue – does not unequivocally answer the question of whether this is a good idea. This article as one of the two closing articles of this Special Issue discusses Social Networking Sites in general and Facebook specifically with respect to how they are ‘normally’ used by their members as well as with respect to their social and technical features. Then, in light of this, it discusses the learning results of the four studies. It concludes with a short discussion of whether they are capable of meeting the promise that many think they can

Towards a Framework for CSCL Research

Although collaborative learning, often supported by computer networks (widely called computer supported collaborative learning, or CSCL) is currently being implemented at all levels of education, it has not always proven to be the wonder-tool that educators envisioned and has often not lived up to the high expectations that educators had for it. In this introduction to the special issue on computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL), a framework for research on CSCL is presented. This framework is presented in the form of a 3 X 3 X 3 cube, with the dimensions Level of Learning (cognitive, social, and motivational), Unit of Learning (individual, group/team, and community) and Pedagogical measures (interactive, representational, and guiding). Based on this framework, the different contributions are discussed, and the empty cells - which should form the basis for further theoretical research – become evident

Group Awareness of Social and Cognitive Behavior in a CSCL Environment

Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2010). Group awareness of social and cognitive behavior in a CSCL environment. In K. Gomez, L. Lyons, & J. Radinsky (Eds.), Learning in the Disciplines: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS 2010): Volume 1 (pp. 230-237). Chicago IL, USA: International Society of the Learning Sciences.This study investigated whether a peer feedback tool and a reflection tool would enhance group performance in a computer-supported collaborative learning environment. The underlying assumption was that group performance can be positively influenced by making group members aware of how their social and cognitive behavior is perceived by themselves, their peers, and the group as a whole. Participants were 120 fourth-year high school students working, with or without the tools, in dyads, triads and groups of 4 on a collaborative writing task. Results show that groups using tools perceived their team as being better developed, experienced higher levels of group satisfaction and lower levels of conflicts, than groups not using the tools. Results demonstrate that awareness, stimulated by peer assessment and reflection tools, enhances the social performance of a CSCL-group

Designing Tasks for Complex Virtual Learning Environments

The central role of tasks has long been acknowledged in foreign language pedagogy (e.g. Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker, 2011), in the context of CALL (Furstenberg, 1997; Chapelle, 2001; Hampel, 2006; 2010; Levy & Stockwell, 2006; Thomas & Reinders, 2010) and, specifically, in literature on online collaboration (Dundis & Benson, 2003; Gruba, 2004; Müller-Hartmann 2000; 2006; O'Dowd & Ware, 2009; Guth & Helm 2011; Dooly & O'Dowd, 2012). In complex learning environments such as those of intercultural online exchanges (IOEs), the role of tasks is particularly pronounced as they drive and structure learners' activity in and through a complex, technology-rich multimodal, multilingual and multicultural context. In such an environment opportunities for learning are not obvious and need to be activated through adequate and relevant tasks. This article discusses the role of tasks in structuring learner activity in complex learning environments (CLEs), best exemplified by intercultural online exchanges (IOEs). First, the concept of complex learning environments (CLEs) are presented, followed by those aspects of task design that best address their complexity, including the role of tasks in executing teaching presence, the workplan-process dichotomy, the role of tasks in fostering community building, concluding with an overview of the mutual task-tool relationship and brief recommendations for training teachers in task design.Fa molt de temps es reconeix el paper important que tenen les tasques en la didàctica de llengües estrangeres (veure Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker, 2011), en el context de CALL (Furstenberg, 1997; Chapelle, 2001 ; Hampel, 2006; 2010; Levy & Stockwell, 2006 Thomas & Reinders, 2010) i, en particular, en la literatura sobre la col·laboració en línia (telecolaboración) (ex. Dundis & Benson, 2003; Gruba, 2004; Müller-Hartmann 2000; 2006; O'Dowd & Ware, 2009; Guth & Helm 2011; Dooly & O'Dowd, 2012). En entorns d'aprenentatge complexos, com els dels intercanvis interculturals en línia (IIeL o Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE) en anglès), el paper de les tasques és particularment pronunciat, ja que promouen i estructuren l'activitat dels alumnes a través d'un context altament complex per les seves característiques tecnològiques, multimodals, multilingües i multiculturals. En un entorn d'aquest tipus les oportunitats per a l'aprenentatge no són sempre inmediatemente evidents i han de ser activades a través de tasques adequades i pertinents. En aquest article s'analitza el paper de les tasques per estructurar l'activitat de l'alumnat en Entorns d'Aprenentatge Complexos (EAC), el cuales són millor exemplificats pels intercanvis interculturals en línia (telecolaboración intercultural). En aquest article es presenta el concepte d'entorns d'aprenentatge complexos (EAC), els aspectes del disseny de les tasques que millor aborden la seva complexitat, incloent la funció de les tasques en l'execució docent, la dicotomia entre pla de treball i procés de treball , el paper de les tasques per fomentar la construcció de 'comunitat', concloent amb una visió general de la relació entre la tasca i les eines, concloent amb breus recomanacions per a la formació de professorat en el disseny de tasques per a aquests entorns complexos.Hace mucho tiempo se reconoce el papel importante que tienen las tareas en la didáctica de lenguas extranjeras (ver Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker, 2011), en el contexto de CALL (Furstenberg, 1997; Chapelle, 2001; Hampel, 2006; 2010; Levy & Stockwell, 2006; Thomas & Reinders, 2010) y, en particular, en la literatura sobre la colaboración en línea (telecolaboración) (ej. Dundis & Benson, 2003; Gruba, 2004; Müller-Hartmann 2000; 2006; O'Dowd & Ware, 2009; Guth & Helm 2011; Dooly & O'Dowd, 2012). En ambientes de aprendizaje complejos, como los de los intercambios interculturales en línea (IEL o Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE) en inglés), el papel de las tareas es particularmente pronunciado, ya que promueven y estructuran la actividad de los alumnos a través de un contexto altamente complejo por sus características tecnológicas, multimodales, multilingües y multiculturales. En un entorno de este tipo las oportunidades para el aprendizaje no son siempre inmediatemente evidentes y deben ser activadas a través de tareas adecuadas y pertinentes. En este artículo se analiza el papel de las tareas para estructurar la actividad del alumnado en Entornos de Aprendizaje Complejos (EAC), lo cuales son mejor ejemplificados por los intercambios interculturales en línea (telecolaboración intercultural). En este artículo se presenta el concepto de entornos de aprendizaje complejos (EAC), los aspectos del diseño de las tareas que mejor abordan su complejidad, incluyendo la función de las tareas en la ejecución docente, la dicotomía entre plan de trabajo y proceso de trabajo, el papel de las tareas fomentar la construcción de 'comunidad', concluyendo con una visión general de la relación entre la tarea y las herramientas, concluyendo con breves recomendaciones para la formación de profesorado en el diseño de tareas para estos entornos complejos.Longue reconnu le rôle important des les tâches dans l'enseignement des langues étrangères (voir Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker, 2011), dans le contexte de CALL (Furstenberg, 1997; Chapelle 2001; Hampel, 2006; 2010; Levy & Stockwell, 2006; Thomas & Reinders, 2010), et en particulier, dans la littérature sur la collaboration en ligne (telecolaboración) (ex. Dunder & Benson, 2003; Gruber, 2004; Müller-Hartmann, 2000; 2006; O'Dowd & Ware, 2009; Guth & Helm 2011. Dooly & O'Dowd, 2012). Dans les environnements d'apprentissage complexes, comme les échanges interculturels en ligne (EIeL ou Online Intercultual Exchange (OIE) en anglais), le rôle de la tâche est particulièrement prononcée, car ils favoriser et de structurer l'activité des élèves à travers des environnements très complexes pour ses caractéristiques technologiques, multimodaux, multilingues et multiculturelles. Dans un environnement de ces possibilités d'apprentissage ne sont pas toujours inmediatemente évident et doit être activé par le biais des tâches appropriées et pertinentes. Cet article analyse le rôle des tâches de structurer l'activité des élèves dans les environnements d'apprentissage complexes (EAC), qui sont les mieux illustrés par les échanges interculturels en ligne (telecolaboración interculturel). Cet article introduit le concept d'environnements d'apprentissage complexes (EAC), les aspects de la conception des tâches qui répondent le mieux à sa complexité, y compris le rôle des tâches de mise en œuvre de l'enseignant, la dichotomie entre le plan de travail et le processus de travail, le rôle des tâches d'encourager la construction de la «communauté», et conclut avec brèves recommandations pour la formation des enseignants dans la conception des tâches pour ces environnements complexes.Zadania dydaktyczne od dawna znajdują się w centrum uwagi edukacji językowej (n.p. Ellis, 2003; Willis, 1996; Müller-Hartmann & Schocker, 2011), zwłaszcza w kontekście kształcenie językowego wspomaganego komputerem (Furstenberg, 1997; Chapelle, 2001; Hampel, 2006; 2010; Levy & Stockwell, 2006 Thomas & Reinders, 2010) oraz tzw. e-współpracy (Dundis & Benson, 2003; Gruba, 2004; Müller-Hartmann 2000; 2006; O'Dowd & Ware, 2009; Guth & Helm 2011; Dooly & O'Dowd, 2012). W złożonych środowiskach uczenia się zadania pełnią rolę szczególną, bowiem stymulują aktywność uczestnika oraz nadają owej aktywności cel, kierunek i strukturę. Ma to ogromne znaczenie w środowsku w którym, z racji jego multimodalności, wielojęzyczności oraz wielokulturowości, możliwości uczenia się nie są dla uczestnika oczywiste. Niniejszy tekst omawia zadania dydaktyczne w kotekście interkulturowych wymian online. Po zarysowaniu pojęcia, prezentuję te aspekty zadań, które warunkują pracę ucznia: cechy dyskursywne instrukcji jako wyraz tzw. „teaching presence" (Anderson et al. 2001), zadanie-jako-plan oraz zadanie-jako-proces, rolę zadań w tworzeniu poczucia wspólnoty, oraz dwustronną zależność miedzy zadaniem i narzędziem. Tekst zamykają rekomendacje dla kształcenia nauczycieli

Evaluation of the effectiveness of cooperative learning structures in improving students\u27 performance

In a desperate attempt to improve high school classroom performances, recently, schools have begun to move towards incorporating cooperative learning strategies into their classrooms. Generally, cooperative learning strategies can be described as the use of small groups to encourage learners work together and accomplish shared goals and subsequently maximize theirs and others’ potential. In an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of this strategy on classroom learning, this study compares the gains in means of scores between a group taught using cooperative learning strategies and another group taught using non-cooperative learning strategies. Fifty-three students taking Algebra I were given a pretest before administering this strategy then a posttests afterwards to determine the normalized gain based on the Hake equation. Thirty-one students participated in cooperative learning out of which 77% showed a net mean positive gain whereas, the 22 students in the non-cooperative group had a positive gain of 54%. Comparison of these results did not indicate any statistical significance between the two groups. However, it was observed that students who worked in cooperative groups were more engaged, more responsible in completing group assignments and more organized while working in their respective groups. These results may encourage the practice of cooperative learning strategies in a high schoollevel setting

Online discussion compensates for suboptimal timing of supportive information presentation in a digitally supported learning environment

This study used a sequential set-up to investigate the consecutive effects of timing of supportive information presentation (information before vs. information during the learning task clusters) in interactive digital learning materials (IDLMs) and type of collaboration (personal discussion vs. online discussion) in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) on student knowledge construction. Students (N = 87) were first randomly assigned to the two information presentation conditions to work individually on a case-based assignment in IDLM. Students who received information during learning task clusters tended to show better results on knowledge construction than those who received information only before each cluster. The students within the two separate information presentation conditions were then randomly assigned to pairs to discuss the outcomes of their assignments under either the personal discussion or online discussion condition in CSCL. When supportive information had been presented before each learning task cluster, online discussion led to better results than personal discussion. When supportive information had been presented during the learning task clusters, however, the online and personal discussion conditions had no differential effect on knowledge construction. Online discussion in CSCL appeared to compensate for suboptimal timing of presentation of supportive information before the learning task clusters in IDLM

Individual and group-based learning from complex cognitive tasks: Effects on retention and transfer efficiency

Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. (2009). Individual and group-based learning from complex cognitive tasks: Effects on retention and transfer efficiency. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 306-314.The effects of individual versus group learning (in triads) on efficiency of retention and transfer test performance in the domain of biology (heredity) among 70 high-school students were investigated. Applying cognitive load theory, the limitations of the working memory capacity at the individual level were considered an important reason to assign complex learning tasks to groups rather than to individuals. It was hypothesized that groups will have more processing capacity available for relating the information elements to each other and by doing so for constructing higher quality cognitive schemata than individuals if the high cognitive load imposed by complex learning tasks could be shared among group members. In contrast, it was expected that individuals who learn from carrying out the same complex tasks would need all available processing capacity for remembering the interrelated information elements, and, consequently, would not be able to allocate resources to working with them. This interaction hypothesis was confirmed by the data on efficiency of retention and transfer test performance; there was a favorable relationship between mental effort and retention test performance for the individual learners as opposed to a favorable relationship between transfer test performance and mental effort for the students who learned in groups