Origin and function of short-latency inputs to the neural substrates underlying the acoustic startle reflex

The acoustic startle reflex (ASR) is a survival mechanism of alarm, which rapidly alerts the organism to a sudden loud auditory stimulus. In rats, the primary ASR circuit encompasses three serially connected structures: cochlear root neurons (CRNs), neurons in the caudal pontine reticular nucleus (PnC), and motoneurons in the medulla and spinal cord. It is well-established that both CRNs and PnC neurons receive short-latency auditory inputs to mediate the ASR. Here, we investigated the anatomical origin and functional role of these inputs using a multidisciplinary approach that combines morphological, electrophysiological and behavioral techniques. Anterograde tracer injections into the cochlea suggest that CRNs somata and dendrites receive inputs depending, respectively, on their basal or apical cochlear origin. Confocal colocalization experiments demonstrated that these cochlear inputs are immunopositive for the vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1). Using extracellular recordings in vivofollowed by subsequent tracer injections, we investigated the response of PnC neurons after contra-, ipsi-, and bilateral acoustic stimulation and identified the source of their auditory afferents. Our results showed that the binaural firing rate of PnC neurons was higher than the monaural, exhibiting higher spike discharges with contralateral than ipsilateral acoustic stimulations. Our histological analysis confirmed the CRNs as the principal source of short-latency acoustic inputs, and indicated that other areas of the cochlear nucleus complex are not likely to innervate PnC. Behaviorally, we observed a strong reduction of ASR amplitude in monaural earplugged rats that corresponds with the binaural summation process shown in our electrophysiological findings. Our study contributes to understand better the role of neuronal mechanisms in auditory alerting behaviors and provides strong evidence that the CRNs-PnC pathway mediates fast neurotransmission and binaural summation of the ASR. © 2014 Gómez-Nieto, Horta-Júnior, Castellano, Millian-Morell, Rubio and López

Effects of moderate-level sound exposure on behavioral thresholds in chinchillas

Normal audiometric thresholds following noise exposure have generally been considered as an indication of a recovered cochlea and intact peripheral auditory system, yet recent animal work has challenged this classic assumption. Moderately noise-exposed animals have been shown to have permanent loss of synapses on inner hair cells (IHCs) and permanent damage to auditory nerve fibers (ANFs), specifically the low-spontaneous rate fibers (low-SR), despite normal electrophysiological thresholds. Loss of cochlear synapses, known as cochlear synaptopathy, disrupts auditory-nerve signaling, which may result in perceptual speech deficits in noise despite normal audiometric thresholds. Perceptual deficit studies in humans have shown evidence consistent with the idea of cochlear synaptopathy. To date, there has been no direct evidence linking cochlear synaptopathy and perceptual deficits. Our research aims to develop a cochlear synaptopathy model in chinchilla, similar to previously established mouse and guinea pig models, to provide a model in which the effects of cochlear synaptopathy on behavioral and physiological measures of low-frequency temporal coding can be explored. ^ Positive-reinforcement operant-conditioning was used to train animals to perform auditory detection behavioral tasks for four frequencies: 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz. Our goal was to evaluate the detection abilities of chinchillas for tone-in-noise and sinusoidal amplitude modulated (SAM) tone behavioral tasks, which are tasks thought to rely on low-SR ANFs for encoding. Testing was performed before and after exposure to an octave-band noise exposure centered at 1 kHz for 2 hours at 98.5 dB SPL. This noise exposure produced the synaptopathy phenotype in naïve chinchillas, based on auditory-brainstem responses (ABRs), otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) and histological analyses. Threshold shift and inferred synaptopathy was determined from ABR and OAE measures in our behavioral animals. ^ Overall, we have shown that chinchillas, similar to mice and guinea pigs, can display cochlear synaptopathy phenotype following moderate-level sound exposure. This finding was seen in naïve exposed chinchillas, but our results suggest the susceptibility to noise can vary between naïve and behavioral cohorts because minimal physiological evidence for synaptopathy was observed in the behavioral group. Hearing sensitivity determined by a tone-in-quiet behavioral task on normal hearing chinchillas followed trends reported previously, and supported the lack of permanent threshold shift following moderate noise exposure. As we expected, thresholds determined in a tone-in-noise behavioral task were higher than thresholds measured in quiet. Behavioral thresholds measured in noise after moderate noise exposure did not show threshold shifts relative to pre-exposure thresholds in noise. As expected, chinchillas were more sensitive at detecting fully modulated SAM-tone signals than less modulated, with individual modulation depth thresholds falling within previously reported mammalian ranges. ^ Although we have only been able to confirm cochlear synaptopathy in pilot assays with naïve animals so far (i.e., not in the pilot behavioral animals), this project has developed an awake protocol for moderate-level noise exposure, an extension to our lab’s previous experience with high-level permanent damage noise exposure under anesthesia. Also, we successfully established chinchilla behavioral training and testing protocols on several auditory tasks, a new methodology to our laboratory, which we hope will ultimately allow us to identify changes in auditory perception resulting from moderate-level noise exposure

Objective and Subjective Evaluation of Wideband Speech Quality

Traditional landline and cellular communications use a bandwidth of 300 - 3400 Hz for transmitting speech. This narrow bandwidth impacts quality, intelligibility and naturalness of transmitted speech. There is an impending change within the telecommunication industry towards using wider bandwidth speech, but the enlarged bandwidth also introduces a few challenges in speech processing. Echo and noise are two challenging issues in wideband telephony, due to increased perceptual sensitivity by users. Subjective and/or objective measurements of speech quality are important in benchmarking speech processing algorithms and evaluating the effect of parameters like noise, echo, and delay in wideband telephony. Subjective measures include ratings of speech quality by listeners, whereas objective measures compute a metric based on the reference and degraded speech samples. While subjective quality ratings are the gold - standard\u27\u27, they are also time- and resource- consuming. An objective metric that correlates highly with subjective data is attractive, as it can act as a substitute for subjective quality scores in gauging the performance of different algorithms and devices. This thesis reports results from a series of experiments on subjective and objective speech quality evaluation for wideband telephony applications. First, a custom wideband noise reduction database was created that contained speech samples corrupted by different background noises at different signal to noise ratios (SNRs) and processed by six different noise reduction algorithms. Comprehensive subjective evaluation of this database revealed an interaction between the algorithm performance, noise type and SNR. Several auditory-based objective metrics such as the Loudness Pattern Distortion (LPD) measure based on the Moore - Glasberg auditory model were evaluated in predicting the subjective scores. In addition, the performance of Bayesian Multivariate Regression Splines(BMLS) was also evaluated in terms of mapping the scores calculated by the objective metrics to the true quality scores. The combination of LPD and BMLS resulted in high correlation with the subjective scores and was used as a substitution for fine - tuning the noise reduction algorithms. Second, the effect of echo and delay on the wideband speech was evaluated in both listening and conversational context, through both subjective and objective measures. A database containing speech samples corrupted by echo with different delay and frequency response characteristics was created, and was later used to collect subjective quality ratings. The LPD - BMLS objective metric was then validated using the subjective scores. Third, to evaluate the effect of echo and delay in conversational context, a realtime simulator was developed. Pairs of subjects conversed over the simulated system and rated the quality of their conversations which were degraded by different amount of echo and delay. The quality scores were analysed and LPD+BMLS combination was found to be effective in predicting subjective impressions of quality for condition-averaged data

Proceedings of the Second International Mobile Satellite Conference (IMSC 1990)

Presented here are the proceedings of the Second International Mobile Satellite Conference (IMSC), held June 17-20, 1990 in Ottawa, Canada. Topics covered include future mobile satellite communications concepts, aeronautical applications, modulation and coding, propagation and experimental systems, mobile terminal equipment, network architecture and control, regulatory and policy considerations, vehicle antennas, and speech compression

Ultrasonic transducer design: Feasibility as parametric echosounder in shallow water

In recent decades, acoustic techniques have become the most appropriate tools for biomass estimation in the fishing industry. This is because acoustic waves are the only waves that can be used for remote sensing in the aquatic environment due to their low attenuation compared to electromagnetic waves, which are usually used in long-distance communications in the atmosphere. Ultrasonic echo sounders allow sampling of water columns and cover large areas of ocean by means of sampling campaigns conducted by oceanographic vessels, providing information on fish stocks of commercial interest. Furthermore, as a result of the overexploitation of fishery resources and to cover increasing demand, fish production has been developed as an alternative to capture. Although several species are bred in captivity, in Spain we can highlight three in particular, due to the high economic impact and degree of implantation: Gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). There is demand in the aquaculture industry for techniques developed in the field of fishery acoustics to control and estimate biomass. However, various problems related to the geometry of the application and high fish densities in intensive aquaculture have made these techniques difficult to apply directly. The study of biomass and species classification has progressed in parallel with the development of sonar and echo sounder systems used for this type of applications, and particularly with the evolution of ultrasonic transducers. Operation frequency, transmission power, bandwidth and directivity are key factors in the acoustic methods applied to fishing. In addition, other aspects of research are becoming more relevant in this sector, such as the study of nonlinear parametric sound generation. This generation or parametric effect, produced in the medium, has focused so far especially on bathymetry or classification of the oceanic subsoil, by offering much lower operation frequencies with the same directivity as the beam generated at high frequency. Nowadays, their feasibility is studied for application to fisheries or aquaculture, due to the possibility of working at several frequencies with the same transducer, given the same radiation characteristics, which is not possible in the linear regime. This thesis presents the design of an ultrasound transducer for biomass estimation with specific characteristics and demonstrates its capacity to work in a non-linear regime with optimum apertures for use in shallow water or in aquaculture cages. Chapter 2 presents general information on ultrasound waves, the medium through which they are propagated and an introduction to non-linear generation. General concepts in ultrasound generation and design are presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 shows the numerical models used to reinforce the experimental results presented during this thesis. Chapter 5 covers the design of the transducer, encompassing all the processes, from characterization of the materials, to assembly, operation and simulation of designed prototypes. To conclude, Chapter 6 presents the behavior of prototypes in a nonlinear regime and their feasibility for estimating biomass of different species in shallow water.Las técnicas acústicas se han convertido en las últimas décadas en las herramientas más apropiadas para la estimación de biomasa en el sector pesquero. Esto es debido a que las ondas acústicas son las únicas que pueden utilizarse para teledetección en el medio acuático, por su baja atenuación, comparadas con las ondas electromagnéticas, que son las usadas habitualmente en comunicaciones a larga distancia en la atmósfera. Las ecosondas ultrasónicas permiten muestrear la columna de agua y cubrir grandes extensiones de océano mediante campañas de muestreo realizadas por buques oceanográficos, ofreciendo información de las poblaciones de peces de interés comercial. Por otro lado, como consecuencia de la sobreexplotación de los recursos pesqueros y para cubrir la demanda creciente para su consumo, se ha desarrollado como alternativa a la captura, la producción piscícola. Aunque hay diversas especies que se crían en cautividad, en España podemos destacar tres en particular, por el alto impacto económico y grado de implantación: Dorada (Sparus aurata), lubina (Dicentrarchus labrax) y atún rojo (Thunnus thynnus). La aplicación de las técnicas desarrolladas en el campo de la acústica de pesquerías para el control y estimación de la biomasa en jaulas flotantes, es una demanda del sector acuicultor. Sin embargo, diferentes problemas relacionados con la geometría de la aplicación y las altas densidades de peces con las que se trabaja en acuicultura intensiva, han dificultado la aplicación directa de las mismas. Los avances en el estudio de la biomasa o en la clasificación de especies han ido en paralelo con el desarrollo de los sistemas sonar y ecosondas usados para este tipo de aplicaciones, y particularmente con la evolución de los transductores ultrasónicos empleados. La frecuencia de trabajo, la potencia de emisión, el ancho de banda, así como la directividad son factores clave en los métodos acústicos aplicados a la pesca. Además, otras vertientes de investigación están adquiriendo mayor relevancia en este sector, como por ejemplo, el estudio de la generación no lineal paramétrica de sonido. Esta generación o efecto paramétrico, producido en el medio, se ha enfocado hasta ahora especialmente en batimetrías o en la clasificación del subsuelo oceánico, por ofrecer frecuencias de trabajo mucho más bajas con la misma directividad que el haz generado a alta frecuencia. Actualmente, se estudia su viabilidad para ser aplicado a pesquerías o a acuicultura, debido a la posibilidad de trabajar a varias frecuencias con un mismo transductor, presentado éstas las mismas características de radiación, lo que no es posible en el régimen lineal. Esta tesis presenta el diseño de un transductor de ultrasonidos para la estimación de biomasa con unas características específicas. Demostrando, además, la capacidad de éste para poder trabajar en régimen no lineal con aperturas adecuadas para su uso en aguas poco profundas o en jaulas de acuicultura. En el capítulo 2 se presenta información general sobre las ondas de ultrasonidos y el medio por donde se propagan, así como una introducción a la generación no-lineal. Conceptos generales sobre la generación de los ultrasonidos y el diseño se presentan en el capítulo 3. En el capítulo 4, se muestran los modelos numéricos utilizados para afianzar los resultados experimentales presentados durante la tesis. El capítulo 5 recoge el diseño del transductor, que englobará todos los procesos, desde la caracterización de los materiales, hasta el montaje, puesta en marcha y simulación de los prototipos creados. Para finalizar el capítulo 6 presenta el comportamiento de los prototipos en régimen no lineal y su viabilidad para estimar biomasa de diferentes especies en aguas poco profundasLes tècniques acústiques s'han convertit en les últimes dècades en les ferramentes més apropiades per a l'estimació de biomassa en el sector pesquer. Això és degut a que les ones acústiques són les úniques que poden utilitzar-se per teledetecció en el medi aquàtic, per la seva baixa atenuació, comparades amb les ones electromagnètiques, que són les usades habitualment en comunicacions a llarga distància en l'atmosfera. Les ecosondes ultrasòniques permeten mostrejar la columna d'aigua i cobrir grans extensions d'oceà mitjançant campanyes de mostreig realitzades per vaixells oceanogràfics, oferint informació de les poblacions de peixos d'interès comercial. Per altre costat, com a conseqüència de la sobreexplotació dels recursos pesquers i per cobrir la demanda creixent per al seu consum, s'ha desenvolupat com a alternativa a la captura, la producció piscícola. Encara que hi ha diverses espècies que es crien en captivitat, a Espanya podem destacar tres en particular, per l'alt impacte econòmic i grau d'implantació: Daurada (Sparus aurata), llobarro (Dicentrarchus labrax) i tonyina vermella (Thunnus thynnus). L'aplicació de les tècniques desenvolupades en el camp de l'acústica de pesqueres pel control i estimació de la biomassa en gàbies flotants, és una demanda del sector aqüicultor. No obstant això, diferents problemes relacionats amb la geometria de l'aplicació i les altes densitats de peixos amb les que es treballa en aqüicultura intensiva, han dificultat l'aplicació directa de les mateixes. Els avanços en l'estudi de la biomassa o en la classificació d'espècies han anat en paral·lel amb el desenvolupament dels sistemes sonar i ecosondes usats per a aquest tipus d'aplicacions, i particularment amb l'evolució dels transductors ultrasònics empleats. La freqüència de treball, la potència d'emissió, l'ample de banda, així com la directivitat són factors clau en els mètodes acústics aplicats a la pesca. A més, altres vessants d'investigació estan adquirint major rellevància en aquest sector, com per exemple, l'estudi de la generació no lineal paramètrica de so. Aquesta generació o efecte paramètric, produït en el medi, s'ha enfocat fins ara especialment en batimetries o en la classificació del subsòl oceànic, per oferir freqüències de treball molt més baixes amb la mateixa directivitat que el feix generat a alta freqüència. Actualment, s'estudia la seva viabilitat per a ser aplicat a pesqueries o a aqüicultura, a causa de la possibilitat de treballar a diverses freqüències amb un mateix transductor, presentat aquestes les mateixes característiques de radiació, el que no és possible en el règim lineal. Esta tesi presenta el disseny d'un transductor d'ultrasons per a l'estimació de biomassa amb unes característiques específiques. Demostrant, a més, la capacitat d'aquest per poder treballar en règim no lineal amb obertures adequades per al seu ús en aigües poc profundes o en gàbies d'aqüicultura. En el capítol 2 es presenta informació general sobre els ultrasons i el mitjà pel qual es propaguen, així com una introducció a la generació no-lineal. Conceptes generals sobre la generació dels ultrasons i el disseny es presenten en el capítol 3. En el capítol 4, es mostren també els models numèrics utilitzats per a refermar els resultats experimentals presentats durant la tesi. El capítol 5 recull el disseny del transductor, que englobarà tots els processos, des de la caracterització dels materials fins al muntatge, posada en marxa i simulació dels prototips creats. Finalment, el capítol 6 presenta el comportament dels prototips en règim no lineal i la seua viabilitat per a estimar biomassa de diferents espècies en aigües poc profundes.Ordoñez Cebrián, P. (2017). Ultrasonic transducer design: Feasibility as parametric echosounder in shallow water [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86192TESI

Role of Inhibition in Binaural Processing

The medial and lateral superior olives (MSO, LSO) are the lowest order cell groups in the mammalian auditory circuit to receive massive binaural input. The MSO functions in part to encode interaural time differences (ITD), the predominant cue for localization of low frequency sounds. Binaural inputs to the MSO consist of excitatory projections from the cochlear nuclei (CN) and inhibitory projections from both the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) and lateral nucleus of the trapezoid body (LNTB). The interaction of excitatory and inhibitory currents within an MSO cell\u27s soma and dendrites over the backdrop of its intrinsic ionic conductances imbues ITD sensitivity to these neurons. Lloyd Jeffress proposed a coincidence detection circuit in which arrays of neurons receive sub-threshold excitatory inputs via delay lines that represent sound location as a place code of activity patterns within the cell group (Jeffress, 1948). The Jeffress place code model later found a neural instantiation in the MSO. Recent in vivo (McAlpine et al., 2001; Brand et al., 2002) studies have shown that peak discharge rates do not fall within the ecological range as the Jeffress model predicts but instead ITD is coded by changes in discharge rate. The timing of inhibition relative to excitation modulates the discharge rates of MSO cells (Brand et al., 2002; Chirila et al., 2007); however, the details of this circuit, such as the onset time of inhibition, are not well known. Although the MNTB and LNTB have been investigated in vivo and in vitro , they have not been well characterized with respect to their function in ITD processing in larger mammals. Additionally, inhibition is modulated by anesthesia and confounds in vivo experiments that examine the careful interplay of excitatory and inhibitory effects in the MSO. For this reason, these physiological experiments were performed on decerebrate unanaesthetized animals. Further investigation of the anatomical organization of inhibitory inputs was carried out as the basis for a comprehensive model of the MSO that incorporates the effects of binaural inhibiting projections to MSO neurons.;Unbiased stereological counts of the MNTB, MSO and subdivisions of the LNTB showed that the MSO and MNTB contain approximately the same number of cells. The main (m)LNTB, posteroventral (pv)LNTB and the hilus (h)LNTB are estimated to contain 3800, 1400, and 200 neurons respectively. Tonotopic organization of the MNTB and MSO show that in the low frequency area, MSO cells outnumber MNTB cells 2 to 1, suggesting a divergent innervation of the MSO from the MNTB. Injection of the retrograde tracer, biotinylated dextrane amine, in the MSO, labeled cells in the MNTB, pvLNTB and mLNTB and defines the important role that these sub-nuclei, and in particular the pvLNTB, have in ITD coding. Computational modeling of a single MSO cell suggests that when two sources of inhibition temporally frame excitation the coincidence detection window is refined and less sensitive to temporal fluctuations that otherwise might degrade ITD sensitivity. Finally, physiological properties of MNTB cells reveal a heterogeneous population of responses and less precise temporal coding than are found in their inputs, globular bushy cells

Impact of aging on the auditory system and related cognitive functions: A narrative review

Age-related hearing loss (ARHL), presbycusis, is a chronic health condition that affects approximately one-third of the world’s population. The peripheral and central hearing alterations associated with age-related hearing loss have a profound impact on perception of verbal and non-verbal auditory stimuli. The high prevalence of hearing loss in the older adults corresponds to the increased frequency of dementia in this population. Therefore, researchers have focused their attention on age-related central effects that occur independent of the peripheral hearing loss as well as central effects of peripheral hearing loss and its association with cognitive decline and dementia. Here we review the current evidence for the age-related changes of the peripheral and central auditory system and the relationship between hearing loss and pathological cognitive decline and dementia. Furthermore, there is a paucity of evidence on the relationship between ARHL and established biomarkers of Alzheimer’s disease, as the most common cause of dementia. Such studies are critical to be able to consider any causal relationship between dementia and ARHL. While this narrative review will examine the pathophysiological alterations in both the peripheral and central auditory system and its clinical implications, the question remains unanswered whether hearing loss causes cognitive impairment or vice versa