30 research outputs found

    Influenza Virus-specific CD8+ T Cells -longevity, cross-reactivity and viral evasion-

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    Influenza Virus-specific CD8+ T Cells -longevity, cross-reactivity and viral evasion-

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    Influenza Virus-specific CD8+ T Cells

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    Influenza viruses are among the leading causes of acute respiratory tract infections worldwide. Natural influenza virus infections elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses. Although, neutralizing antibodies directed to the hemagglutinin (HA) globular head domain prevent reinfection with the same influenza virus they exert limited/no cross-reactivity with antigenically drifted variants or influenza viruses of different strains, it is therefore of interest to identify other correlates of protection. Cellular immunity, especially influenza virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), contribute to rapid clearance of influenza virus infections and thereby reduce viral shedding. Influenza virus-specific CTLs, elicited after seasonal influenza virus infections, are mainly directed to conserved internal proteins. In this dissertation we were able to demonstrate the cross-reactivity of seasonal influenza virus-specific CTLs with the novel and potentially pandemic A/H7N9 virus and between different lineages of influenza B viruses. Furthermore, using an unique PBMC donor cohort we were able to assess the longevity of these cells in healthy individuals. In addition, we were able to demonstrate that human influenza A viruses can impair the recognition of the HLA-A*0201 restricted and highly conserved M158-66 epitope by specific CTLs by variations in the extra-epitopic amino acids. This CTL evasion strategy may have implications for the viral replication kinetics in HLA-A*0201 individuals and thus the spread of influenza A viruses in the human population. Finally, we describe a novel adjuvant, G3/DT, that improves the immunogenicity of a standard inactivated seasonal influenza vaccine in terms of enhancing the antibody response and inducing a protective CTL response

    The Burden of Avian Influenza Viruses in Community Ponds in California

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    Emerging influenza viruses continue to challenge public health. The problem is public health science professionals have been battling emerging human influenza diseases with tactile and reactionary methods because there is a lack of knowledge and data at the human-animal interface. This research was a baseline study of the proportion of influenza A virus (IAV) in urban and rural communities in California. The population was artificial recirculating water ponds in the geographic locations of rural and urban Californian communities. Surface water samples [N = 182] were collected from artificial recirculating ponds in California. Positivity for IAV was verified by real time RT-PCR, MDCK cells for virus infectivity, nucleotide sequencing of the RNA genome, and phylogenic analysis of IAV H5N1 strains. The proportion of IAV in rural and urban ponds favored the greater burden of IAV in urban ponds over rural ponds. The presence of waterfowl and IAV M gene sequence positivity were found not to be significantly related. The geochemical properties--pH, salinity, and water temperature at time of collection--were not predictors of IAV infectivity. This baseline research study validated these water ponds as resource sites for IAV surveillance and monitoring. The social change implications of this study can be recognized at the national and international levels, to the population level, and to the individual level by providing geospatial analysis and spatial-temporal data for IAV surveillance, initiating biosecurity measures to protect poultry industries in the United States and Brazil, and contributing to the current IAV strain library. Contributions to the IAV strain library may be used to develop vaccines against human pandemics

    Rapid Increase in the Prevalence of Metronidazole-Resistant Helicobacter pylori in the Netherlands

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    Influenza specific T- and B-cell responses in immunosuppressed patients

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    Influenza, known as the ‘flu’, is a recurrent acute viral infection that might cause severe inflammation, particularly in vulnerable individuals, i.e. young children, the elderly, and immune-suppressed patients, such as stem cell transplant recipients. Prevention strategies, primarily vaccination, and possibly the use of anti-viral drugs, are recommended with the aim to reduce mortality and morbidity. Influenza vaccination responses are often sub-optimal in immune-compromised patients. There is therefore a need to evaluate other vaccination systems and schedules to improve vaccine efficacy. We mapped the humoral and cellular anti-flu directed immune responses and studied in a first set of experiments the immune responses in immune competent individuals prior to, and following a natural pandemic influenza infection, as well as after adjuvanted Pandemrix¼ influenza vaccination. This was performed prospectively during the H1N1 pandemic influenza of 2009. ‘High content’ influenza proteome peptide arrays were used to gauge serum IgG epitope signatures prior to and after Pandemrix¼ vaccination/ or H1N1 pandemic infection described in paper I. A novel epitope residing in the sialic acid receptor-binding domain of VEPGDKITFEATGNL (251-265) of the pandemic flu hemagglutinin was identified. This epitope was found to be exclusively recognized in serum from previously vaccinated individuals and never in serum from individuals with H1N1 infection. The natural H1N1 infection induced a different footprint of IgG epitope recognition patterns as compared to the Pandemrix¼ H1N1 vaccination. Pre-transplant influenza vaccination of the donor or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell (HSCT) candidate was evaluated in a randomized study of 122 HSCT patients reported in paper II. The antibody titers against H1 (p=0.028) and H3 (p<0.001) were highest in the pretransplant recipient vaccination group until d.180 after transplantation. A significant difference was found concerning the specific Ig levels against pandemic H1N1 at 6 months after HSCT (p=0.02). The mean IgG levels against pandemic H1N1, generic H1N1 and H3N2 were highest in the pre-transplant recipient vaccination group. Pre-transplant influenza vaccination of the donor or the HSCT candidate was found to be beneficial in eliciting seroprotective titers. The immunogenicity after a single dose of adjuvanted trivalent virosomal vaccination was evaluated in a cohort of 21 HSCT recipients and compared to a control cohort of 30 HSCT recipients who received a single dose of non-adjuvanted seasonal trivalent subunit vaccination, reported in Paper III. The delta change of IFNγ production in response to pandemic influenza H1N1 (p=0.005) and influenza B antigens (p=0.01) were significantly increased in blood from individuals who received the virosomal, as compared to the nonadjuvanted vaccine. Virosomal vaccination was found to be beneficial in eliciting robust cellular immune responses to influenza pandemic H1N1. Pandemic influenza hemagglutinin MHC class 1 peptide restricted CD8 T-cells were enumerated over the course of a natural pandemic influenza infection and Pandemrix¼ vaccination in a prospective study reported in Paper IV. PBMCs from vaccinated control individuals exhibited a significantly increased percentage of (p=0.003) hemagglutinin specific CD8 T-cells that resided in the terminally differentiated effector memory compartment, as compared to PBMCs from individuals that contracted H1N1 infection. The cellular immune signatures were found to be different elicited by a natural flu infection as compared to vaccination concerning the phenotype/maturation of antigen-specific CD8 Tcells

    High-Yield Production Process of Influenza Virus-Like Particles in Human Cells Toward Large-Scale Vaccine Manufacturing

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    Le virus influenza a Ă©tĂ© la cause d’épidĂ©mies et de pandĂ©mies parmi les plus anciennes et meurtriĂšres rapportĂ©es dans l’histoire de l’humanitĂ©. La vaccination est le moyen le plus efficace de prĂ©venir les infections. Par contre, la fabrication actuelle des vaccins contre l’influenza se fait dans les oeufs, avec des embryons de poulet, un procĂ©dĂ© lent et laborieux qui limite la capacitĂ© de rĂ©pondre efficacement en cas de pandĂ©mie ou suite Ă  une forte demande pour la grippe saisonniĂšre. De plus, ces vaccins induisent principalement une rĂ©ponse humorale contre les antigĂšnes dominants hĂ©magglutinine (HA) et neuraminidase (NA), deux protĂ©ines du virus, causant un manque de protection croisĂ©e contre certaines des nouvelles souches. Leur efficacitĂ© est Ă©galement rĂ©duite chez certains groupes plus vulnĂ©rables (par ex. personnes ĂągĂ©es et jeunes enfants). Par consĂ©quent, l’industrie se tourne vers le dĂ©veloppement d’une nouvelle gamme de vaccins plus immunogĂ©niques et produits Ă  partir de plateformes plus efficaces. Les particules pseudo-virales (Virus-like particles en anglais, VLPs) constituent une alternative intĂ©ressante comme vaccin. Les VLPs prĂ©sentent une structure qui s’apparente Ă  celle des virus de type sauvage, en permettant la prĂ©sentation Ă  leur surface des antigĂšnes principaux, dans leur conformation native. De plus, les particules pseudo-virales sont non-infectieuses et incapables de se rĂ©pliquer. Les cellules de mammifĂšres offrent plusieurs avantages comme plateforme d’expression pour la synthĂšse de nombreux produits biopharmaceutiques; elles sont capables d’effectuer des modifications post-traductionnelles complexes, de croĂźtre Ă  haute densitĂ© et de produire des VLPs en suspension et en biorĂ©acteur. Jusqu’à maintenant, les Ă©tudes traitant des VLPs influenza (produites avec des cellules de mammifĂšres) se sont concentrĂ©es principalement sur l’assemblage du virion et sur le mĂ©canisme de bourgeonnement cellulaire, alors que seulement un nombre limitĂ© d’études porte sur leur production Ă  grande Ă©chelle et leur emploi potentiel comme vaccin. Dans le cadre de cette thĂšse, un bioprocĂ©dĂ© transposable Ă  grande Ă©chelle pour produire des quantitĂ©s importantes de VLPs chimĂ©riques Gag-influenza Ă  partir de cellules HEK-293 (cellules de reins issues d’un embryon humain) a Ă©tĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ©. En premier lieu, nous avons gĂ©nĂ©rĂ© une lignĂ©e cellulaire HEK-293 exprimant de façon stable les protĂ©ines HA et NA (souche H1N1 du virus Influenza) sous le contrĂŽle d’un systĂšme inductible au cumate. Ensuite, la formation des VLPs chimĂ©riques a Ă©tĂ© induite et dirigĂ©e par la transfection de plasmides codant la protĂ©ine Gag du virus de l’immunodĂ©ficience humaine ou la protĂ©ine M1, vii une composante de la matrice du virus de l’influenza. La protĂ©ine Gag a Ă©tĂ© fusionnĂ©e Ă  la protĂ©ine fluorescente verte pour faciliter le suivi de la production des VLPs. Les protĂ©ines antigĂ©niques ont Ă©tĂ© produites 7 fois plus efficacement en prĂ©sence de la protĂ©ine Gag, ce qui indique qu’il s’agit d’une meilleure protĂ©ine structurale que M1 dans ce contexte. Par consĂ©quent, la production de VLPs contenant HA-NA et Gag (par transfection) a donc Ă©tĂ© transfĂ©rĂ©e Ă  l’échelle d’un biorĂ©acteur de 3L avec agitation. Les VLPs ont Ă©tĂ© recueillies par ultracentrifugation sur un coussin de sucrose, puis concentrĂ©es par filtration Ă  flux tangentiel en employant une membrane ayant des pores d’une taille limite de 1000 kDa. Plusieurs techniques ont Ă©tĂ© employĂ©es pour caractĂ©riser les VLPs produites: immunodiffusion radiale simple, essai d’hĂ©magglutination, immunobuvardage de type Western et dot blot, ainsi que la microscopie Ă©lectronique Ă  transmission. Par ailleurs, lors d’essais sur des animaux, l’immunisation intranasale Ă  partir de VLPs a permis d’induire une rĂ©ponse immunitaire spĂ©cifique en plus de confĂ©rer une protection totale Ă  toutes les souris soumises Ă  l’épreuve (100% d’efficacitĂ©) avec une souche homologue de l’influenza. AprĂšs avoir dĂ©montrĂ© l’efficacitĂ© des VLPs comme vaccin in vivo (dĂ©monstration de faisabilitĂ©), une nouvelle lignĂ©e cellulaire inductible a Ă©tĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ©e, exprimant cette fois les trois protĂ©ines HA, NA et Gag fusionnĂ©e Ă  la GFP. Le but de gĂ©nĂ©rer une telle lignĂ©e Ă©tait de simplifier le procĂ©dĂ© de production en Ă©liminant l’étape de transfection transitoire, qui peut ĂȘtre laborieuse Ă  conduire Ă  grande Ă©chelle. Sans sacrifier la production spĂ©cifique, le procĂ©dĂ© a Ă©tĂ© optimisĂ© pour obtenir une plus grande production volumĂ©trique en augmentant notamment la densitĂ© cellulaire au moment de l’induction et en employant un mode de perfusion. L’opĂ©ration a Ă©tĂ© rĂ©alisĂ©e Ă  l’aide d’un biorĂ©acteur de 3L et d’une filtration Ă  flux tangentiel subsĂ©quente permettant d’augmenter les rendements de VLPs de 60 fois (3x1011 Gag-GFP Ă©vĂ©nements fluorescents/L de culture mesurĂ©s par cytomĂ©trie de flux) en comparaison Ă  une production sans perfusion (5x109 Gag-GFP Ă©vĂ©nements fluorescents/L). Le procĂ©dĂ© a Ă©tĂ© caractĂ©risĂ© en dĂ©terminant la cinĂ©tique de production des protĂ©ines d’intĂ©rĂȘts prĂ©sentes dans les VLPs (le procĂ©dĂ© en amont) ainsi que le taux de rĂ©cupĂ©ration pour chaque opĂ©ration unitaire de la purification (le procĂ©dĂ© en aval). L’opĂ©ration du biorĂ©acteur, en mode de perfusion et avec la lignĂ©e stable 293-HA/NA/Gag-GFP, a permis d’obtenir 5 fois plus de protĂ©ines antigĂ©niques HA dans les VLPs que le biorĂ©acteur opĂ©rĂ© sans perfusion oĂč la transfection transitoire a Ă©tĂ© employĂ©e. Le nouveau procĂ©dĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ© viii a permis de gĂ©nĂ©rer des rendements supĂ©rieurs Ă  ceux publiĂ©s jusqu’à ce jour pour des VLPs influenza produits Ă  partir de cellules de mammifĂšres. Finalement, dans le but de rĂ©pondre Ă  certaines prĂ©occupations de biosĂ©curitĂ© associĂ©es Ă  un usage potentiel de VLPs comme vaccins (parce que ce sont des particules enveloppĂ©es qui bourgeonnent d’une cellule hĂŽte et qui renferment des protĂ©ines cellulaires, de l’ADN et de l’ARN), nous avons effectuĂ© une caractĂ©risation du protĂ©ome des VLPs Gag-influenza produites par transfection transitoire et des vĂ©sicules extracellulaires produites par des cellules HEK-293 de type sauvage. Les fonctions des protĂ©ines identifiĂ©es dans les VLPs et dans les vĂ©sicules extracellulaires ont Ă©tĂ© discutĂ©es. Le procĂ©dĂ© dĂ©veloppĂ© dans le cadre de cette thĂšse devrait ĂȘtre efficace pour produire des VLPs exposant les protĂ©ines HA et NA issues de diffĂ©rentes souches d’influenza. Les VLPs produites pourraient ĂȘtre Ă©valuĂ©es dans le cadre d’essais cliniques dans le but de conduire au dĂ©veloppement d’un vaccin efficace et sĂ©curitaire pour remplacer ou complĂ©menter le procĂ©dĂ© actuel de production dans les embryons poulets. ---------- Of the fatal infections noted in human history, influenza epidemics and pandemics are among the most ancient. Vaccination remains the most effective tool to prevent infection. However, the current production of influenza vaccines in embryonated chicken eggs has limited capacity during pandemics or high demand seasons, and is both labor-intensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, the seasonal egg-produced vaccines mainly induce humoral response to the Hemagglutinin (HA)/Neuraminidase (NA) dominant antigens, which leads to a lack of cross-protection against other non-matching novel strains. In addition, the vaccines provide low protection in high risk groups (e.g., elderly and young children). Consequently, the industry is moving toward the development of novel, more immunogenic influenza vaccines as well as more efficient production platforms. Virus-like particles (VLPs) constitute a promising alternative as influenza vaccine. They mimic the particulate structure of wild-type viruses while they are non-infectious, non-replicative particles, and the main antigens repetitively displayed on their surface maintain the native conformation. Mammalian cell culture offers several advantages for the production of biopharmaceuticals such as their ability to perform complex post-translational modifications and the high cell densities and productivities reached in suspension culture bioreactors. Up to now, the production of influenza VLPs from mammalian cells has been mostly addressed to study influenza assembly and budding mechanisms but little attention has been paid to its potential use for large-scale manufacturing of VLPs as influenza vaccine candidate. The aim of this thesis was to develop a scalable process to produce large quantities of chimeric influenza Gag-VLPs from stable human embryonic kidney HEK-293 cells in suspension culture. First, a HEK-293 cell line stably expressing HA and NA proteins of influenza (subtype H1N1) under the regulation of the inducible cumate system was established. Then, the formation of VLPs was mediated by transient transfection of plasmids encoding human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Gag or M1 influenza matrix protein. Gag protein was fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP) to facilitate the monitoring of VLPs production. VLP antigenic proteins were produced seven times more efficiently in the presence of Gag, indicating that Gag is a better scaffolding protein than M1 in this context. Subsequently, the production of HA-NA containing VLPs after transient transfection of Gag as scaffold protein was successfully implemented in a 3-L controlled stirred tank bioreactor. VLPs were recovered by ultracentrifugation on a sucrose x cushion followed by concentration through tangential flow filtration (TFF) using a 1000 KDa cut-off membrane. Different techniques were employed to characterize the produced VLPs: Single radial immunodiffusion (SRID), hemagglutination assay, dot-blot, western-blot, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Of great significance, intranasal immunization of VLPs induced specific immunogenic response and provided complete protection in mice challenged with the homologous influenza strain. Once the proof of concept of VLPs as an efficacious influenza vaccine was demonstrated in vivo, we developed a new inducible cell line expressing the three proteins HA, NA and the Gag fused to GFP. This was performed in an effort to streamline the production process by eliminating the transient transfection step that can be cumbersome at large scale. The process was optimized to reach a high volumetric yield of VLPs by increasing the cell density at the time of induction without sacrificing the cell specific productivity. By operating a 3L-bioreactor in perfusion mode followed by TFF, the yields of VLPs were improved by 60-fold (3x1011 Gag-GFP fluorescent events/L of culture measured by flow cytometry) compared to a standard batch culture (5x109 Gag-GFP fluorescent events/L). The process was characterized for the upstream kinetics of production of VLP proteins and recovery rates for each downstream step. The production of a single bioreactor, operated in perfusion mode, with the stable cell line 293-HA/NA/Gag-GFP yielded 5-fold more total VLP antigenic HA proteins than what was produced with the 3L-batch bioreactor using transient transfection. Our process provided unprecedented yields of influenza VLPs produced from mammalian cells. Finally, because VLPs are enveloped particles that bud from a host cell potentially enclosing host cell proteins, DNA and RNA, which could pose a safety concern, we performed a proteomic characterization of the influenza Gag-VLPs produced by transient transfection and also extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced from wild-type HEK-293 cells. The functions of all proteins identified within VLPs and EVs were critically discussed. The process developed in this thesis could support the production of VLPs harboring HA and NA of different strains for clinical trials and could potentially result in a better vaccine candidate with higher efficacy and safety to replace the current labor-intensive egg-produced influenza vaccines

    Using Pseudotypes To Study Heterosubtypic Antibody Responses Elicted By Seasonal Influenza Vaccination

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    Influenza viruses represent an important public health burden since they cause annual epidemics associated with severe illness and mortality in high-risk populations. Additionally, zoonotic influenza virus infections have potential to produce intermittent pandemics, which have led to millions of deaths globally. However, strategies to prevent influenza severity and spread can be implemented. It is known that antibodies against the haemagglutinin play a key role in protection from influenza virus infection, thus both seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines aim to elicit such antibodies. Generally, they are directed against haemagglutinin globular head epitopes and are able to neutralize closely related influenza strains, but recently antibodies able to neutralize multiple influenza strains and subtypes have also been described. The discovery of these antibodies, primarily directed against the haemagglutinin stalk, has generated interest in understanding how they are generated and how widespread they are in the human population. Furthermore, eliciting such antibodies has become the aim of many ‘universal’ vaccine approaches. However, the study of these cross-reactive antibodies using classical serological assays is problematic since the current assays have been shown to be relatively insensitive in detecting them. The main objective of this thesis was to study the presence and breadth of cross-reactive neutralizing responses in human populations. To overcome the limitations of current serological tests in detecting these responses, lentiviral pseudotype particles bearing the haemagglutinins of different influenza A subtypes and influenza B strains were used as surrogate antigens in neutralization assays. After the generation of these novel tools and the establishment of appropriate controls, pseudotype particle neutralization assays were employed to investigate cross-reactive antibody responses in pre- and post-vaccination sera. Next, the use of chimeric haemagglutinins, in which the globular head was substituted with the head of a different subtype, was incorporated into the pseudotype system. This allowed the differentiation between haemagglutinin head-directed and stalk-directed antibody responses. The ability to efficiently detect broadly neutralizing antibody responses, including those directed against the haemagglutinin stalk, shows that pseudotype particles are tools that should be further characterised and implemented to be used in sero-epidemiological studies and for ‘universal’ vaccine immunogenicity studies

    Age, period, and cohort effects on adult mortality due to extrinsic causes of death

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    AprĂšs des dĂ©cennies d'amĂ©lioration, l'espĂ©rance de vie a stagnĂ© dans plusieurs pays Ă  faible mortalitĂ© ces derniĂšres annĂ©es, avec, dans certains cas, quelques reculs. L’augmentation de la mortalitĂ© due Ă  la grippe et aux surdoses de drogue, en particulier dans la gĂ©nĂ©ration des baby-boomers, a Ă©tĂ© le principal responsable de cette stagnation de l’espĂ©rance de vie. Cette dĂ©couverte Ă©tait inattendue, car il est considĂ©rĂ© que la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque – par opposition Ă  la mortalitĂ© intrinsĂšque due Ă  des maladies dĂ©gĂ©nĂ©ratives se dĂ©clarant souvent aux grands Ăąges – joue un rĂŽle nĂ©gligeable dans les changements actuels d'espĂ©rance de vie. Pour la mĂȘme raison, les tendances temporelles de la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque n’ont guĂšre retenu l’attention des chercheurs. Les crises pĂ©riodiques dues aux Ă©pidĂ©mies de grippe et Ă  la crise des opioĂŻdes sont considĂ©rĂ©es comme les principaux dĂ©terminants des variations de la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque. Cependant, des preuves rĂ©centes suggĂšrent que les effets de cohorte jouent un rĂŽle important dans la modulation de la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque, mais que de telles influences sont encore mal connues. L'objectif principal de cette thĂšse est d'examiner le rĂŽle des effets de cohorte sur l’évolution de la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque dans les derniĂšres dĂ©cennies, avec un accent particulier mis sur la grippe et les causes de dĂ©cĂšs comportementales. Plus spĂ©cifiquement, elle vise Ă  (1) dĂ©terminer les diffĂ©rences par cohorte de mortalitĂ© par la grippe et l’influence des expositions prĂ©coces au virus sur cette mortalitĂ©; (2) analyser le dĂ©savantage de mortalitĂ© des baby-boomers au Canada et aux États-Unis en identifiant la contribution des causes comportementales Ă  ce dĂ©savantage; et (3) dĂ©velopper un outil mĂ©thodologique permettant Ă  la fois l'analyse visuelle de la dynamique temporelle des effets non linĂ©aires d'Ăąge, de pĂ©riode et de cohorte (APC) et la comparaison entre divers phĂ©nomĂšnes ou populations. Pour ces analyses, nous utilisons des micro-donnĂ©es de mortalitĂ© provenant de systĂšmes de statistiques de l’état civil au Canada et aux États-Unis. Nous utilisons Ă©galement les taux de mortalitĂ© et de fĂ©conditĂ© de divers pays pour gĂ©nĂ©raliser l'analyse visuelle des effets non linĂ©aires Ă  d'autres phĂ©nomĂšnes dĂ©mographiques que la mortalitĂ©. Les analyses ont Ă©tĂ© rĂ©alisĂ©es en appliquant des modĂšles de Serfling pour l’estimation de la mortalitĂ© par grippe, des mesures dĂ©mographiques permettant une dĂ©composition par cause des variations de la mortalitĂ©, des techniques de lissage pour identifier les tendances et des approches statistiques et visuelles sur des configurations de Lexis pour l’analyse des effets APC. Les rĂ©sultats, sous la forme de trois articles scientifiques, montrent que malgrĂ© des fluctuations marquĂ©es au cours des annĂ©es calendrier (pĂ©riode), les cohortes de naissance ont une influence indĂ©pendante et durable sur la mortalitĂ© liĂ©e Ă  la grippe ou due au comportement. Les principaux rĂ©sultats du premier article suggĂšrent que deux mĂ©canismes modulent la mortalitĂ© grippale au fil des cohortes. Pour la population jeune et adulte, les risques de mortalitĂ© par cohortes dĂ©pendent du contraste en le premier virus auquel on est vraisemblablement exposĂ© (le virus laissant« l’empreinte antigĂ©nique ») et le virus rencontrĂ© Ă  l’ñge adulte, au moment de l’épidĂ©mie sous observation. Des modifications significatives du risque de dĂ©cĂšs ont ainsi Ă©tĂ© observĂ©es lors d’épidĂ©mies de grippes pour les cohortes nĂ©es lors d'importants changements antigĂ©niques (par exemple, une diminution significative du risque pour les cohortes nĂ©es entre 1957 et 1968). Pour les Ăąges plus avancĂ©s, nous n’avons pas identifiĂ© de tels effets de cohorte « ponctuels », mais plutĂŽt un effet de cohorte de plus longue haleine, qui aura conduit Ă  un dĂ©clin progressif de la mortalitĂ© par grippe entre 1959 et 2016. En nous inspirant des thĂ©ories dites de technophysio ou de cohort morbidity phenotype, nous attribuons ce dĂ©clin Ă  des changements s’étant produit bien avant, c’est-Ă -dire Ă  l’amĂ©lioration marquĂ© des conditions sanitaires qui a eu lieu entre 1900 et 1930, au moment oĂč les cohortes concernĂ©es venaient au monde et dont elles ont pu bĂ©nĂ©ficier. Les travaux du deuxiĂšme article de cette thĂšse rĂ©vĂšlent que la plupart des excĂšs de mortalitĂ© chez les baby-boomers au Canada et aux États-Unis sont dus Ă  des causes comportementales. Le dĂ©savantage des baby-boomers rĂ©sulte de plusieurs effets de cohortes sur des causes comportementales diffĂ©rentes, et non pas d'effets de pĂ©riode ponctuels affectant la mĂȘme cohorte aux Ăąges diffĂ©rents, un mĂ©canisme alternatif qui pourrait expliquer la «pĂ©nalitĂ© des boomers». Les baby-boomers prĂ©sentaient respectivement un risque d'hĂ©patite C et de mortalitĂ© par drogue trois fois et deux fois plus Ă©levĂ© que les cohortes voisines. La contribution mĂ©thodologique des graphique de courbure APC, prĂ©sentĂ©e dans le troisiĂšme article, nous a permis d'analyser la dynamique des effets non linĂ©aires au fil du temps, Ă  travers divers phĂ©nomĂšnes et populations. Cette technique offre une plus grande flexibilitĂ© que les modĂšles statistiques ou autres graphiques de Lexis. Les rĂ©sultats prĂ©sentĂ©s dans cette thĂšse montrent l'importance d'analyser les effets de cohortes sur la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque. Nos rĂ©sultats indiquent que mĂȘme en prĂ©sence de perturbations de pĂ©riode importantes affectant la mortalitĂ© extrinsĂšque Ă  la plupart des Ăąges, les effets de cohorte se sont maintenus au fil du temps. Ces rĂ©sultats suggĂšrent Ă©galement que les politiques publiques peuvent amĂ©liorer considĂ©rablement la santĂ© de la population en formulant des politiques qui prennent en compte la sensibilitĂ© diffĂ©rentielle des cohortes aux facteurs de risque et en fournissant un soutien social aux cohortes les plus vulnĂ©rables.After decades of improvement, life expectancy momentarily declined during 2014-15 in several high income countries, with subsequent reversals in some cases. The main sources of this stagnation have been increases in mortality from influenza and drug overdoses, mainly for the baby-boomer generation. This trend is unexpected because it has long been assumed that extrinsic mortality, which is due to causes originating outside the body – in opposition to intrinsic mortality from degenerative diseases at old ages –, plays a negligible role in life expectancy changes. For this reason, the temporal patterns of extrinsic mortality have received little attention in demographic research. Period crises such as influenza epidemics and the opioid crisis are considered the main determinants of variations of extrinsic mortality. However, despite recent evidence suggesting that cohort effects have an important role in modulating extrinsic mortality, little is known about this relationship. The main objective of this dissertation is to help fill this gap by examining cohort influences on extrinsic mortality change, with a particular emphasis on influenza and behavioral causes. More specifically, we aim (1) to quantify cohort differences in mortality from influenza and the influence of early life exposures to the virus on subsequent influenza mortality; (2) to analyze the baby boomers’ disadvantage in mortality in Canada and the United States, while identifying the contributions of behavioral causes to this disadvantage; and (3) to develop a methodological tool that can be used to both conduct visual analysis of the temporal dynamics of nonlinear Age-Period-Cohort (APC) effects, and compare these dynamics across various phenomena or populations. To achieve these goals, we use micro-level mortality data from vital statistics in Canada and the United States. We also employ death and fertility rates from various countries to generalize the visual analysis of nonlinear effects to other demographic phenomena. The analyses were conducted by applying Serfling models for the estimation of influenza mortality, demographic measures for the decomposition of cause-specific mortality changes, smoothing techniques for the identification of trends, and statistical and visual approaches on the Lexis configuration for the analysis of APC effects. The results, in the form of three scientific articles, show that despite marked fluctuations over calendar years (periods), birth cohorts have an independent and sustained influence on influenza and mortality from behavioral causes. The main results from the first paper suggest that two mechanisms modulated influenza mortality over cohorts. For the young and adult population, the mortality risks over cohorts depend of the contrast between the first virus to which individuals were exposed (the virus producing an antigenic imprinting) and the virus encountered in adulthood during the observed epidemic. For this age segment, significant changes in risk were found during influenza epidemics among cohorts born during important antigenic shifts (e.g., a decrease in risk for cohorts born between 1957 and 1968). For older ages, we did not identify such “punctual” cohort effects but rather a smooth and monotonic change in cohort effects that might have driven a progressive decline in influenza mortality between 1959 and 2016. Inspired by so-called cohort morbidity phenotype and technophysio evolution theories, we attributed this decline to changes produced earlier, i.e., to the sharp sanitary improvements occurred between 1900 and 1930, when the concerned cohorts were born and when they could have benefited. Findings from the second paper revealed that most of the baby boomers’ excess mortality in Canada and the United States is driven by behavioral causes of death. The “boomer disadvantage” resulted from multiple cohort effects on behavioral-related mortality, and not from punctual period effects affecting the same cohort at different ages. Among the baby boomers, the risk of dying from hepatitis C was almost three times higher, and the risk of dying from drug-related causes was almost two times higher, than among the adjacent cohorts. These results were obtained using an innovative methodology developed in the third paper, which allowed us to analyze the dynamics of nonlinear effects over time through APC curvature plots. This technique provides greater flexibility than statistical models or other Lexis plots, and it has been shown to be applicable to other demographic phenomena, such as fertility. The findings presented in this dissertation offer evidence of the importance of analyzing cohort effects on extrinsic mortality. Our results indicate that even in the presence of substantial period disturbances affecting extrinsic mortality at most ages, cohort effects were sustained over time. These findings also suggest that public policies can significantly improve the health of the population by formulating policies that take into account the differential sensitivity of cohorts to risk factors and by providing social support to the most vulnerable cohorts
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