Fibre electronics: towards scaled-up manufacturing of integrated e-textile systems

The quest for a close human interaction with electronic devices for healthcare, safety, energy and security has driven giant leaps in portable and wearable technologies in recent years. Electronic textiles (e-textiles) are emerging as key enablers of wearable devices. Unlike conventional heavy, rigid, and hard-to-wear gadgets, e-textiles can lead to lightweight, flexible, soft, and breathable devices, which can be worn like everyday clothes. A new generation of fibre-based electronics is emerging which can be made into wearable e-textiles. A suite of start-of-the-art functional materials have been used to develop novel fibre-based devices (FBDs), which have shown excellent potential in creating wearable e-textiles. Recent research in this area has led to the development of fibre-based electronic, optoelectronic, energy harvesting, energy storage, and sensing devices, which have also been integrated into multifunctional e-textile systems. Here we review the key technological advancements in FBDs and provide an updated critical evaluation of the status of the research in this field. Focusing on various aspects of materials development, device fabrication, fibre processing, textile integration, and scaled-up manufacturing we discuss current limitations and present an outlook on how to address the future development of this field. The critical analysis of key challenges and existing opportunities in fibre electronics aims to define a roadmap for future applications in this area

Printing conductive traces to enable high frequency wearable electronics applications

With the emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless body area networks (WBANs) are becoming increasingly pervasive in everyday life. Most WBANs are currently working at the IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee standard. However there are growing interests to investigate the performance of BANs operating at higher frequencies (e.g. millimetre-wave band), due to the advantages offered compared to those operating at lower microwave frequencies. This thesis aims to realise printed conductive traces on flexible substrates, targeted for high frequency wearable electronics applications. Specifically, investigations were performed in the areas pertaining to the surface modification of substrates and the electrical performance of printed interconnects. Firstly, a novel methodology was proposed to characterise the dielectric properties of a non-woven fabric (Tyvek) up to 20 GHz. This approach utilised electromagnetic (EM) simulation to improve the analytical equations based on transmission line structures, in order to improve the accuracy of the conductor loss values in the gigahertz range. To reduce the substrate roughness, an UV-curable insulator was used to form a planarisation layer on a non-porous substrate via inkjet printing. The results obtained demonstrated the importance of matching the surface energy of the substrate to the ink to minimise the ink de-wetting phenomenon, which was possible within the parameters of heating the platen. Furthermore, the substrate surface roughness was observed to affect the printed line width significantly, and a surface roughness factor was introduced in the equation of Smith et al. to predict the printed line width on a substrate with non-negligible surface roughness (Ra ≤ 1 µm). Silver ink de-wetting was observed when overprinting silver onto the UV-cured insulator, and studies were performed to investigate the conditions for achieving electrically conductive traces using commercial ink formulations, where the curing equipment may be non-optimal. In particular, different techniques were used to characterise the samples at different stages in order to evaluate the surface properties and printability, and to ascertain if measurable resistances could be predicted. Following the results obtained, it was demonstrated that measurable resistance could be obtained for samples cured under an ambient atmosphere, which was verified on Tyvek samples. Lastly, a methodology was proposed to model for the non-ideal characteristics of printed transmission lines to predict the high frequency electrical performance of those structures. The methodology was validated on transmission line structures of different lengths up to 30 GHz, where a good correlation was obtained between simulation and measurement results. Furthermore, the results obtained demonstrate the significance of the paste levelling effect on the extracted DC conductivity values, and the need for accurate DC conductivity values in the modelling of printed interconnects

Wearable sensors for respiration monitoring: a review

This paper provides an overview of flexible and wearable respiration sensors with emphasis on their significance in healthcare applications. The paper classifies these sensors based on their operating frequency distinguishing between high-frequency sensors, which operate above 10 MHz, and low-frequency sensors, which operate below this level. The operating principles of breathing sensors as well as the materials and fabrication techniques employed in their design are addressed. The existing research highlights the need for robust and flexible materials to enable the development of reliable and comfortable sensors. Finally, the paper presents potential research directions and proposes research challenges in the field of flexible and wearable respiration sensors. By identifying emerging trends and gaps in knowledge, this review can encourage further advancements and innovation in the rapidly evolving domain of flexible and wearable sensors.This work was supported by the Spanish Government (MICINN) under Projects TED2021-131209B-I00 and PID2021-124288OB-I00.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Recent advances of wearable antennas in materials, fabrication methods, designs, and their applications: state-of-the-art

The demand for wearable technologies has grown tremendously in recent years. Wearable antennas are used for various applications, in many cases within the context of wireless body area networks (WBAN). In WBAN, the presence of the human body poses a significant challenge to the wearable antennas. Specifically, such requirements are required to be considered on a priority basis in the wearable antennas, such as structural deformation, precision, and accuracy in fabrication methods and their size. Various researchers are active in this field and, accordingly, some significant progress has been achieved recently. This article attempts to critically review the wearable antennas especially in light of new materials and fabrication methods, and novel designs, such as miniaturized button antennas and miniaturized single and multi-band antennas, and their unique smart applications in WBAN. Finally, the conclusion has been drawn with respect to some future directions

Revolutionizing digital healthcare networks with wearable strain sensors using sustainable fibers

Wearable strain sensors have attracted research interest owing to their potential within digital healthcare, offering smarter tracking, efficient diagnostics, and lower costs. Unlike rigid sensors, fiber‐based ones compete with their flexibility, durability, adaptability to body structures as well as eco‐friendliness to environment. Here, the sustainable fiber‐based wearable strain sensors for digital health are reviewed, and material, fabrication, and practical healthcare aspects are explored. Typical strain sensors predicated on various sensing modalities, be it resistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, or triboelectric, are explained and analyzed according to their strengths and weaknesses toward fabrication and applications. The applications in digital healthcare spanning from body area sensing networks, intelligent health management, and medical rehabilitation to multifunctional healthcare systems are also evaluated. Moreover, to create a more complete digital health network, wired and wireless methods of data collection and examples of machine learning are elaborated in detail. Finally, the prevailing challenges and prospective insights into the advancement of novel fibers, enhancement of sensing precision and wearability, and the establishment of seamlessly integrated systems are critically summarized and offered. This endeavor not only encapsulates the present landscape but also lays the foundation for future breakthroughs in fiber‐based wearable strain sensor technology within the domain of digital health

Electrically Conductive 2D Material Coatings for Flexible & Stretchable Electronics: A Comparative Review of Graphenes & MXenes

There is growing interest in transitioning electronic components and circuitry from stiff and rigid substrates to more flexible and stretchable platforms, such as thin plastics, textiles, and foams. In parallel, the push for more sustainable, biocompatible, and cost-efficient conductive inks to coat these substrates, has led to the development of formulations with novel nanomaterials. Among these, 2D materials, and particularly graphenes and MXenes, have received intense research interest due to their increasingly facile and scalable production, high electrical conductivity, and compatibility with existing manufacturing techniques. They enable a range of electronic devices, including strain and pressure sensors, supercapacitors, thermoelectric generators, and heaters. These new flexible and stretchable electronic devices developed with 2D material coatings are poised to unlock exciting applications in the wearable, healthcare and Internet of Things sectors. This review has surveyed key data from more than 200 articles published over the last 6 years, to provide a quantitative analysis of recent progress in the field and shade light on future directions and prospects of this technology. We find that despite the different chemical origins of graphenes and MXenes, their shared electrical properties and 2D morphology, guarantee intriguing performance in end applications, leaving plenty of space for shared progress and advancements in the future

Wearable Nano-Based Gas Sensors for Environmental Monitoring and Encountered Challenges in Optimization

With a rising emphasis on public safety and quality of life, there is an urgent need to ensure optimal air quality, both indoors and outdoors. Detecting toxic gaseous compounds plays a pivotal role in shaping our sustainable future. This review aims to elucidate the advancements in smart wearable (nano)sensors for monitoring harmful gaseous pollutants, such as ammonia (NH3), nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), hydrocarbons (CxHy), and hydrogen fluoride (HF). Differentiating this review from its predecessors, we shed light on the challenges faced in enhancing sensor performance and offer a deep dive into the evolution of sensing materials, wearable substrates, electrodes, and types of sensors. Noteworthy materials for robust detection systems encompass 2D nanostructures, carbon nanomaterials, conducting polymers, nanohybrids, and metal oxide semiconductors. A dedicated section dissects the significance of circuit integration, miniaturization, real-time sensing, repeatability, reusability, power efficiency, gas-sensitive material deposition, selectivity, sensitivity, stability, and response/recovery time, pinpointing gaps in the current knowledge and offering avenues for further research. To conclude, we provide insights and suggestions for the prospective trajectory of smart wearable nanosensors in addressing the extant challenges

Metamorphic stretchable electronics

Die jüngsten Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der Elektronik wenden sich der Realisierung mechanischer dehnbarer Elektroniken zu. Diese sind in der Lage sich umzuwandeln um neue Formfaktoren anzunehmen. Um eine nahtlose Integration der Elektronik in unsere Alltagsgegenstände und viele weitere Anwendungsfelder zu ermöglichen, bei denen herkömmliche starre elektronische Systeme nicht ausreichen, ist mechanische Dehnbarkeit notwendig. Diese Arbeit zielt darauf ab, eine dehnbare Leiterplattentechnologie (sPCB) zu demonstrieren, die mit industriellen Herstellungsprozessen kompatibel ist. Idealerweise soll das starre Trägersubstrat der konventionellen Elektronik durch ein dehnbares Gummisubstrat mit dehnbaren Leiterbahnen ersetzt werden. Zunächst wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um eine industrietaugliche, einlagige, dehnbare Leiterplatte zu realisieren. Der dargestellte Ansatz unterscheidet sich von anderen Methoden in diesem Bereich, welche die Metallisierung auf dem Gummisubstrat aufbringen und die Komponenten anschließend darauf montieren. Dadurch leiden diese unter einer geringeren Ausrichtung und Fixierung. Stattdessen wird im dargestellten Ansatz ein harter Träger verwendet, der den Einsatz des dehnbaren Gummimaterials bis ans Ende der Prozesskette verschiebt. Diese Single-Layer-Methode wurde weiterentwickelt, um mehrschichtige, integrierte sPCB zu realisieren, bei der verschiedene Metallisierungsebenen durch vertikalen Durchkontaktierungen (VIA) miteinander verbunden werden. Auch dieses Verfahren verwendet konventionelle starre Träger für den Herstellungsprozess. Wie in der konventionellen Leiterplattentechnologie ist auch die Herstellung auf starren Trägern wichtig, da sie Folgendes ermöglicht: Ausrichtung und Registrierung, Hochtemperaturprozesse, konventionelle Chip-Bestückung durch Roboter und "On-Hard-Carrier"-Bauteiltests. Darüber hinaus ermöglicht die dargestellte Methode den direkten Einsatz handelsüblicher SMDs, was für die einfache Realisierung komplexer elektronischer Schaltungen wichtig ist. Als Endsubstrat kommt ein hochelastisches Silikonmaterial (EcoFlex) zum Einsatz, welches die Bauelementebenen einkapselt. Um die Bauelementebenen vom harten Träger auf das weiche Substrat zu übertragen, wird ein einstufiges, waferbasiertes und lösungsmittelfreies Ablöseverfahren eingesetzt, bei dem die differentielle Grenzflächenadhäsion einer Multi-Opferschichten genutzt wird. Für die hochelastischen Leiterbahnen wurde ein neues Mäander-Metallbahndesign entwickelt, welches als "spannungsadaptiv" bezeichnet wird. Die neue Mäander-Metallbahn variiert in ihrer Breite, um das einwirkende Drehmoment in den Metallbahnen, aufgrund der ungleichmäßigen Spannungsverteilung über die Mäander-Schleifen, aufzunehmen. Das spannungsadaptive Design zeigt eine signifikante Verbesserung der Spannungsverteilungen auf den Metallbahnen und führt experimentell zu einem höheren Niveau der maximalen Dehnung und der Anzahl der Dehnungszyklen. Es wurde eine breite Palette von dehnbaren Systemen demonstriert, darunter Elektronik, Optoelektronik, Akustoelektronik und Sensor-Arrays. Die Demonstratoren, auf Basis einer einzigen Metallisierungsschicht in einer Gummimatrix, enthalten Arrays mit gehäusten SMDs, LED-Nacktchips, laborgefertigte Si [my]-Transistoren und MEMS-Mikrofone. Weiterhin wird eine integrierte Multilayer-sPCB mit Chip-großen LEDs und Transistoren demonstriert, um eine adressierbare aktive Matrix zu realisieren. Dieser Prototyp demonstriert die Machbarkeit von integrierten Multilayer-sPCB und wird im Prinzip dazu führen, dass jedes heute bekannte elektronische System in ein äquivalentes dehnbares System überführt werden kann. Schließlich stellt diese Arbeit das bahnbrechende Konzept der metamorphen Elektronik vor, welche sich umwandeln kann um neue Topologien und Formfaktoren anzunehmen. Es werden verschiedene Arten von Deformationsmechanismen demonstriert, darunter das Aufblasen von gleichförmigen oder strukturierten Gummimembranen, 3D-geführte Deformationen und Vakuumformung in Kombination mit 3D-Schablonen. Die Palette der Topologien reicht dabei von halbkugelförmig, kugelförmig, konkav/konvex, pyramidenförmig, turmartig, bis hin zu komplexeren 3D-Formen, darunter Bienenaugen-Strukturen.Recent advancement in the field of electronics has taken a shift to enable the realization of mechanically stretchable electronics which morph to take on new form factors. Mechanical stretchability is necessary to have seamless integration of electronics in our daily life objects and many other purposes where conventional rigid electronic system is insufficient. This thesis aims to enable a stretchable printed circuit board (sPCB) technology that is compatible with industrial manufacturing. Ideally, the rigid carrier substrate of conventional electronics is intended to be replaced by stretchable rubber substrate with stretchable interconnects. Initially, a method has been developed to realize an industry compatible single layer stretchable PCB. The approach is different from other reported methods in this field, which apply the metallization to the rubber support and mount the components on top and, which suffer from a lower level of alignment and fixation. Instead, in the depicted method a hard carrier is used, which delays the use of the stretchable rubber support to the end of the processing sequence. The single layer method has been further developed to realize a multilayer integrated sPCB, where different metallization layers are connected through vertical interconnect access (VIA). The method uses hard carrier. Like conventional PCB technology, the hard carrier fabrication is important since it enables: alignment and registration, high temperature processing, conventional robotic chip placement, and “on-hard-carrier” device tests. Moreover, the depicted method enables direct use of commercially available SMDs which is important to realize complex electronic devices. As final substrate, highly stretchable silicone material (EcoFlex) is used which encapsulates the device layers. To transfer the device layers from hard carrier to soft substrate a single-step, wafer-level, and solvent-free detachment process has been developed which uses the differential interfacial adhesion in between the sacrificial layers. For highly stretchable interconnects a new meander metal track design is developed which is named as “stress adaptive” metal track. The new meander metal track varies in widths to accommodate produced torque in the metal tracks due to the non-uniform stress distribution over the meander loops. The stress adaptive design shows a significant improvement in the stress distributions over the metal tracks in computer simulated stress profile. And, experimental results show a higher level of maximum stretching (320%) and higher number of stretch-release cycles (11000) comparing with a reference design. A wide range of stretchable systems have been demonstrated including electronics, optoelectronics, acoustoelectronics and sensor arrays. The demonstrators contain arrays with packaged SMDs, bare dies integrated LEDs, lab-fabricated Si µ-transistors and MEMS microphones using a single metallization layer within a rubber matrix. Furthermore, an integrated multilayer sPCB is demonstrated using chip scale LEDs and transistors to realize an addressable active matrix. These prototypes of integrated multilayer electronics demonstrate method to enable multilayer sPCB technology which could lead to realize any electronic system known today to be stretchable. Finally, this thesis introduces a new type of electronics which morph to adapt to new topology and form factor. This shape-adaptive electronics is named as metamorphic electronics. Various types of deformation mechanisms have been demonstrated including inflation and/or deflation of uniform or patterned rubber membranes, 3D guided deformations, and vacuum forming in combination with 3D chaperons. The range of topologies includes hemispherical, spherical, concave/convex, pyramid, tower, bumble bee-eye, and more complex 3D shapes

Novel Flexible Wearable Antennas Based on Advanced Materials and Fabrication Techniques.

PhD Theses.Wearable technology has evolved gradually in parallel with other technological advancements, and nowadays, it plays a key role in a wide range of applications. New antenna designs within wearable environments should explore solutions using exible materials, remaining ergonomic and comfortable but o ering mechanical robustness at the same time. Among these materials, carbon-based materials are up-and-coming candidates for these types of solutions and fabrics to fully integrate into e-textiles and smart clothing. The target of this research is to develop novel designs for exible antennas that will provide solutions to overcome the challenges associated with wearable technology by using modern fabrication techniques and materials. A comprehensive literature review regarding fabrication methods, together with material characterisation techniques is presented. A lack of experimental work was noticed, and for the rst time, a full campaign of measurements was carried out to accurately describe the temperature's impact on fabric-based devices using resonator antenna structures. Wearables in general and e-textiles, in particular, are about to tackle tremendous environmental and sustainability challenges. In the context of exploring sustainable materials in e-textiles, a novel soft and conformal textile-based antenna using multi-layer graphene sheets has been thoroughly analysed, describing its performance, the e ects of bending, and proximity to the human body. Within this research, printing techniques have been considered as an alternative to assembly processes. Two antenna designs (PICA/LOOP) with the advantages of carbon nanotubes inks and screen-printing methods, such as lightness, malleable and washability are characterized. In addition, a quasi-Yagi-Uda design has been optimized, fabricated, and characterised. The specimen was inkjet printed on Kapton substrate using graphene ink. A post-numerical analysis was used to characterise the e ect of a not ideal fabrication. The measured data was post-processed in order to overcome some of the associated challenges of measurements for exible devices in a wearable environment. The outcomes of this research ful l the gap between the use of carbon-based alternatives and fabrication procedures on di erent exible substrate