An energy scaled and expanded vector-based forwarding scheme for industrial underwater acoustic sensor networks with sink mobility

Industrial Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (IUASNs) come with intrinsic challenges like long propagation delay, small bandwidth, large energy consumption, three-dimensional deployment, and high deployment and battery replacement cost. Any routing strategy proposed for IUASN must take into account these constraints. The vector based forwarding schemes in literature forward data packets to sink using holding time and location information of the sender, forwarder, and sink nodes. Holding time suppresses data broadcasts; however, it fails to keep energy and delay fairness in the network. To achieve this, we propose an Energy Scaled and Expanded Vector-Based Forwarding (ESEVBF) scheme. ESEVBF uses the residual energy of the node to scale and vector pipeline distance ratio to expand the holding time. Resulting scaled and expanded holding time of all forwarding nodes has a significant difference to avoid multiple forwarding, which reduces energy consumption and energy balancing in the network. If a node has a minimum holding time among its neighbors, it shrinks the holding time and quickly forwards the data packets upstream. The performance of ESEVBF is analyzed through in network scenario with and without node mobility to ensure its effectiveness. Simulation results show that ESEVBF has low energy consumption, reduces forwarded data copies, and less end-to-end delay

Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network Data Optimization with Enhanced Void Avoidance and Routing Protocol

Deployment of a multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) in a larger region presents innovative challenges in reliable data communications and survivability of network because of the limited underwater interaction range or bandwidth and the limited energy of underwater sensor nodes. UASNs are becoming very significant in ocean exploration applications, like underwater device maintenance, ocean monitoring, ocean resource management, pollution detection, and so on. To overcome those difficulties and attains the purpose of maximizing data delivery ratio and minimizing energy consumption of underwater SNs, routing becomes necessary. In UASN, as the routing protocol will guarantee effective and reliable data communication from the source node to the destination, routing protocol model was an alluring topic for researchers. There were several routing techniques devised recently. This manuscript presents an underwater acoustic sensor network data optimization with enhanced void avoidance and routing (UASN-DAEVAR) protocol. The presented UASN-DAEVAR technique aims to present an effective data transmission process using proficient routing protocols. In the presented UASN-DAEVAR technique, a red deer algorithm (RDA) is employed in this study. In addition, the UASN-DAEVAR technique computes optimal routes in the UASN. To exhibit the effectual results of the UASN-DAEVAR technique, a wide spread experimental analysis is made. The experimental outcomes represented the enhancements of the UASN-DAEVAR model

A novel cooperative opportunistic routing scheme for underwater sensor networks

Increasing attention has recently been devoted to underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) because of their capabilities in the ocean monitoring and resource discovery. UWSNs are faced with different challenges, the most notable of which is perhaps how to efficiently deliver packets taking into account all of the constraints of the available acoustic communication channel. The opportunistic routing provides a reliable solution with the aid of intermediate nodes’ collaboration to relay a packet toward the destination. In this paper, we propose a new routing protocol, called opportunistic void avoidance routing (OVAR), to address the void problem and also the energy-reliability trade-off in the forwarding set selection. OVAR takes advantage of distributed beaconing, constructs the adjacency graph at each hop and selects a forwarding set that holds the best trade-off between reliability and energy efficiency. The unique features of OVAR in selecting the candidate nodes in the vicinity of each other leads to the resolution of the hidden node problem. OVAR is also able to select the forwarding set in any direction from the sender, which increases its flexibility to bypass any kind of void area with the minimum deviation from the optimal path. The results of our extensive simulation study show that OVAR outperforms other protocols in terms of the packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, end-to-end delay, hop count and traversed distance

A stateless opportunistic routing protocol for underwater sensor networks

Routing packets in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) face different challenges, the most notable of which is perhaps how to deal with void communication areas. While this issue is not addressed in some underwater routing protocols, there exist some partially state-full protocols which can guarantee the delivery of packets using excessive communication overhead. However, there is no fully stateless underwater routing protocol, to the best of our knowledge, which can detect and bypass trapped nodes. A trapped node is a node which only leads packets to arrive finally at a void node. In this paper, we propose a Stateless Opportunistic Routing Protocol (SORP), in which the void and trapped nodes are locally detected in the different area of network topology to be excluded during the routing phase using a passive participation approach. SORP also uses a novel scheme to employ an adaptive forwarding area which can be resized and replaced according to the local density and placement of the candidate forwarding nodes to enhance the energy efficiency and reliability. We also make a theoretical analysis on the routing performance in case of considering the shadow zone and variable propagation delays. The results of our extensive simulation study indicate that SORP outperforms other protocols regarding the routing performance metrics

An energy efficient void avoidance opportunistic routing protocol for underwater sensor

Underwater sensor network is an emerging technology due to its numerous applications in aqueous environments. However, limitations of these networks include limited bandwidth, high propagation delays and power constraints. Hence, new routing protocols must be designed specifically for USN. Opportunistic routing offers a promising method to overcome these limitations. The proposed protocol is a novel energy-efficient void avoidance opportunistic routing algorithm. The protocol deals with the issue of void holes during transmission while reducing energy consumption and keeping the packet delivery ratio at a satisfactory level. To evaluate the performance, two common metrics have been used for routing protocols in USNs; energy consumption and packet delivery ratio. Simulations were carried out in ns2 with Aqua-Sim. The performance of the proposed routing protocol is compared to VAPR. The performance evaluation of EEVA-OR indicate its benefit as compared to VAPR in terms of void detection, energy consumption and packet delivery ratio

Investigating Master-Slave Architecture for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network.

A significant increase has been observed in the use of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) over the last few decades. However, there exist several associated challenges with UWSNs, mainly due to the nodes' mobility, increased propagation delay, limited bandwidth, packet duplication, void holes, and Doppler/multi-path effects. To address these challenges, we propose a protocol named "An Efficient Routing Protocol based on Master-Slave Architecture for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (ERPMSA-UWSN)" that significantly contributes to optimizing energy consumption and data packet's long-term survival. We adopt an innovative approach based on the master-slave architecture, which results in limiting the forwarders of the data packet by restricting the transmission through master nodes only. In this protocol, we suppress nodes from data packet reception except the master nodes. We perform extensive simulation and demonstrate that our proposed protocol is delay-tolerant and energy-efficient. We achieve an improvement of 13% on energy tax and 4.8% on Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), over the state-of-the-art protocol

A localization-free interference and energy holes minimization routing for underwater wireless sensor networks

Interference and energy holes formation in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) threaten the reliable delivery of data packets from a source to a destination. Interference also causes inefficient utilization of the limited battery power of the sensor nodes in that more power is consumed in the retransmission of the lost packets. Energy holes are dead nodes close to the surface of water, and their early death interrupts data delivery even when the network has live nodes. This paper proposes a localization-free interference and energy holes minimization (LF-IEHM) routing protocol for UWSNs. The proposed algorithm overcomes interference during data packet forwarding by defining a unique packet holding time for every sensor node. The energy holes formation is mitigated by a variable transmission range of the sensor nodes. As compared to the conventional routing protocols, the proposed protocol does not require the localization information of the sensor nodes, which is cumbersome and difficult to obtain, as nodes change their positions with water currents. Simulation results show superior performance of the proposed scheme in terms of packets received at the final destination and end-to-end delay

Void avoidance opportunistic routing density rank based for underwater sensor networks

Currently, the Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is mainly an attractive area due to its technological ability to gather valuable data from underwater environments such as tsunami monitoring sensors, military tactical applications, and environmental monitoring. However, UWSNs are suffering from limited energy, high packet loss, and the use of acoustic communication which have very limited bandwidth and slow transmission. In UWSNs, the energy consumption used is 125 times more during the forwarding of the packet data from source to destination as compare to during receiving data. For this reason, many researchers are keen to design an energy-efficient routing protocol to minimize the energy consumption in UWSNs while at the same time provide adequate packet delivery ratio and less cumulative delay. As such, the opportunistic routing (OR) is the most promising method to be used in UWSNs due to its unique characteristics such as high path loss, dynamic topology, high energy consumption, and high propagation delay. However, the OR algorithm had also suffered from as higher traffic load for selection next forwarding nodes in the progression area, which suppressed the redundant forwarding packet and caused communication void. There are three new proposed algorithms introduced to address all three issues which resulted from using the OR approach in UWSNs. Firstly, the higher traffic load for selection next forwarding nodes in the problematic progression area problem was addressed by using the Opportunistic Routing Density Based (ORDB) algorithm to minimize the traffic load by introducing a beaconless routing to update the neighbor node information protocol. Secondly, the algorithm Opportunistic Routing Density Rank Based (ORDRB) was developed to deal with redundant packet forwarding by introducing a new method to reduce the redundant packet forwarding while in dense or sparse conditions to improve the energy consumption effectively. Finally, the algorithm Void Avoidance Opportunistic Routing Density Rank Based (ORDRB) was developed to deal with the communication void by introducing a simple method to detect a void node and avoid it during the forwarding process. Simulation results showed that ORDB has improved the network performance in terms of energy tax average (25%, 40%), packet delivery ratio (43%, 23%), and cumulative delay (67%, -42%) compared to DBR and UWFlooding routing protocols. While for ORDRB, the network performance improved in terms of energy tax average (0.9%, 53%, 62%), packet delivery ratio (100%, 83%, 58%) and cumulative delay (-270%, -94%, 55%) compared to WDFAD-DBR, DBR and UWFlooding. Lastly, for VAORDRB, the network performance improved in terms of energy tax average (3%, 8%), packet delivery ratio (167%, 261%), and cumulative delay (68%, 57%) compared to EVA-DBR and WDFAD-DBR. Based on the findings of this study, the protocol VAORDRB is a suitable total solution to reduce the cumulative delay and increase the packet delivery ratio in sparse and dense network deployment

DOW-PR dolphin and whale pods routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs)

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) have intrinsic challenges that include long propagation delays, high mobility of sensor nodes due to water currents, Doppler spread, delay variance, multipath, attenuation and geometric spreading. The existing Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) protocol considers the weighting depth of the two hops in order to select the next Potential Forwarding Node (PFN). To improve the performance of WDFAD-DBR, we propose DOlphin and Whale Pod Routing protocol (DOW-PR). In this scheme, we divide the transmission range into a number of transmission power levels and at the same time select the next PFNs from forwarding and suppressed zones. In contrast to WDFAD-DBR, our scheme not only considers the packet upward advancement, but also takes into account the number of suppressed nodes and number of PFNs at the first and second hops. Consequently, reasonable energy reduction is observed while receiving and transmitting packets. Moreover, our scheme also considers the hops count of the PFNs from the sink. In the absence of PFNs, the proposed scheme will select the node from the suppressed region for broadcasting and thus ensures minimum loss of data. Besides this, we also propose another routing scheme (whale pod) in which multiple sinks are placed at water surface, but one sink is embedded inside the water and is physically connected with the surface sink through high bandwidth connection. Simulation results show that the proposed scheme has high Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), low energy tax, reduced Accumulated Propagation Distance (APD) and increased the network lifetime