Infants’ relationship with drop-offs and water environments

Underpinned by the ecological approach to perceptual-motor development, this Thesis aims to contribute to the understanding of the organization of infants’ behaviour during encounters with drop-offs and water environments. Previous studies have linked locomotor experience to infants’ avoidance of falling from heights. Using the Real Cliff / Water Cliff apparatus, Burnay and Cordovil (2016) confirmed the effect of locomotor experience on crawlers’ avoidance of drop-offs and linked locomotor experience to infants’ avoidance of falling into the water for the first time. However, the effect of other specific locomotor experiences on infants’ approach to aquatic environments has not been addressed. This Thesis investigated the effect of specific locomotor experiences and the transition from skilled crawling to novice walking on infants’ behaviour when they encounter real cliffs and two different ways to access the water: a cliff and a slope. Using a cross-sectional design, Study One examined the effect of specific locomotor experiences on 102 infants’ (58 crawlers, 44 walkers) avoidance of falling from a real and a water cliff (tank of water attached to the edge of a drop-off). Crawling and total self-produced locomotor experiences were associated with crawling and walking infants’ behaviour. No association between walking experience and walking infants’ avoidance behaviour was found. Study Two examined 25 infants’ behaviour on the real and the water cliff in a longitudinal design. Infants were tested as experienced crawlers, new walkers and again as experienced walkers. The majority of infants avoided equally or more consistently when tested as new walkers than as experienced crawlers and even more consistently when tested as experienced walkers. Combining results from Study One and Two indicates that some degree of what infants learn through crawling experience about navigating drop-offs transfers to a new walking locomotor pattern. For new walkers, adaptive behaviour requires a recalibration process, and a longer duration of crawling experience facilitates this process. To investigate if perceptual-motor development influences infants’ avoidance of submersion when a sloped entrance to the water is offered in the same way it does when a drop-off is presented, Study Three examined 77 infants’ (43 crawlers, 34 walkers) avoidance of submersion on a 10⁰ sloped surface leading to deep water. No association between infants’ avoidance of submersion and locomotor experiences was found. Comparison with the results of Study One revealed that the proportion of infants that reached submersion on the slope was greater than the proportion of infants that fell into the water cliff. With self-produced locomotor experience, infants become attuned to relevant perceptual information about threats posed by cliffs (filled with water or not) but locomotor experience does not teach them to perceive water as unsafe when it can be approached via a sloped pathway. Outcomes of this Thesis can be applied to educate caregivers about sensitive periodswhen infants are more susceptible to engage in behaviour that heightens drowning risk and to inform them about the potential increased drowning risk posed by swimming pools with sloping access

The effects of movement-based instruction, meter, and rhythmic aptitude on beginning instrumental music students' abilities to communicate metric structure in performance

The principal purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of participation and nonparticipation in movement-based instruction, developed by Weikart, on beginning instrumental music students' abilities to communicate duple and triple metric structure when reading and performing rhythm patterns using their music instruments. Secondary purposes were to examine (a) the effect of rhythmic aptitude, (b) the effect of differences in notated meter, and (c) the interactive effects of movement-based instruction background and level of rhythmic aptitude on students' abilities. Students from Colorado, Massachusetts, and Washington served as subjects for the study (n = 155). Subjects in the movement group (n = 77) participated in weekly music classes in which a teacher was implementing principles of Weikart's Education Through Movement: Building the Foundation program for three years prior to beginning instrumental music instruction. The comparison group (n = 78) was comprised of students who had not participated in movement-based instruction, yet participated in the same beginning instrumental music programs as students in the movement group

Relative effectiveness of three diverse instructional conditions on seventh-grade wind band students' expressive musical performance

Thesis (D.M.A.)--Boston UniversityIn this study, the researcher examined the relative effectiveness of three diverse instructional conditions (aural model (AM), concrete musical instruction (CM), and verbal instruction using imagery/metaphor statements (MI)) on seventh-grade wind band students' expressive musical performance. This study was based, in part, on Woody's (2006a) research with adaptations to include developmentally appropriate instructional conditions for seventh-grade wind band students. In the AM condition, the aural model was recorded by an advanced pianist who synthesized elements from both the CM and MI conditions and exaggerated the expressive properties of loudness, tempo, and style/note duration. In the CM instructional condition, the researcher notated musical markings corresponding to the intended emotion on the printed score for three melodies. Finally, in the MI condition, high-quality examples of imagery/metaphor statements were gathered from experienced wind band instructors and the best-rated statement for each melody was utilized. Participants were enrolled in two seventh-grade wind band programs located in Cobb County, Georgia. Sixty randomly sampled, seventh-grade wind band musicians participated in an expressive performance procedure (EPP) consisting of a pretest recording, an instructional condition, and a posttest recording followed by computer analysis of the loudness, tempo and style/note duration expressive properties. Data were analyzed through matched pairs t-tests determining whether the instructional conditions affected statistically significant differences, from pretest to posttest scores (p < .05), on expressive music performance. Data were further analyzed using an ANCOVA and Tukey HSD post-hoc tests to examine statistically significant (p < .05) differences regarding the relative effectiveness of the three instructional conditions. The results of the matched pairs t-tests indicated the AM, CM, and MI instructional conditions affected the mean difference score sets with statistical significance. Furthermore, results suggested the AM and MI conditions were found to be significantly (p < .005) more effective in affecting the mean difference scores sets than the CM condition; however, the AM and MI conditions did not appear to be significantly more effective compared to one another. The analysis provided evidence supporting the notion that diverse instructional conditions may be effective alternatives for teaching expressive performance

New Insight For Activity Intensity Relativity: Metabolic Expenditure During Object Projection Skill Performance

This dissertation consist of four studies that examine energy expenditure (EE) during object projection skill performance (OPSP). These four studies have the potential to inform physical education (PE) curricula and physical activity (PA) interventions by providing an understanding the acute EE associated with performing OPSP in developmentally appropriate activities. If OPSP is associated with high EE, then promoting their development during physical activity interventions and physical education (PE) will have both an acute and long-term health-enhancing benefit. Thus, the purposes of these four studies was to examine adult and children’s EE associated with the performance of object projection skills at different intensity intervals. The purpose of Study 1 was to examine the metabolic cost (METS) of performing object projection skills at three practice trial intervals (6, 12 and 30 seconds). 40 adults (female n = 20) aged 18-30 (M = 23.7 ± 2.9 years) completed three, nine-minute sessions of skill trials performed at 6, 12, and 30 second intervals. Participants performed kicking, throwing and striking trials in a blocked schedule with maximal effort. Average METS during each session were measured using a COSMED K4b2. A three (interval condition) X two (sex) ANOVA was conducted to examine differences in METS across interval conditions and by sex. Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 5,114, F = 187.02, p \u3c .001, η2 = 0.76) with decreased interval times yielding significantly higher METS [30 sec = 3.45, 12 sec = 5.68, 6 sec = 8.21]. A main effect for sex (df = 5, 114, F = 35.39, p \u3c .001, η2 = 0.24) also was found with men demonstrating higher METS across all intervals. At a rate of only two trials/min, participants elicited moderate physical activity, with 12 and 6 second intervals exhibiting vigorous PA. The purpose of Study 2 was to compare the EE levels during OPSP as assessed by indirect calorimetry and accelerometry. Thirty-four adults (female n = 18) aged 18-30 (23.5 ± 2.5 years) performed three, nine-minute sessions of kicking, over-arm throwing, and striking performed at 6, 12, and 30 second intervals. EE was estimated (METS) using indirect calorimetry (COSMED k4b2) and hip-worn accelerometry (ActiGraph GT3X+). EE using indirect calorimetry demonstrated moderate-intensity physical activity (PA) (3.4 ± 0.7 METS – 30sec interval, 5.8 ± 1.2 METS – 12sec interval) to vigorous intensity PA (8.3 ± 1.7 METS – 6sec interval). However, accelerometry predicted EE suggested only light-intensity PA (1.7 ± 0.2 METS – 30sec interval, 2.2 ± 0.4 METS – 12sec interval, 2.7 ± 0.6 METS – 6sec interval). Accelerometry does not adequately capture the PA intensity level when performing OPSP skills, regardless of differences in performance intervals. The purpose of Study 3 was to examine boys and girls EE during OPSP at three different intensity intervals. Children (42, Mage = 8.1) participated in a within-subjects design with three nine-minute sessions of trial intervals (i.e., 6, 12, and 30 second intervals) where participants performed kicking, throwing, and striking. Skills were performed with maximum effort in blocks of five trials of each skill in serial order until each nine-minute interval session was completed. The average metabolic equivalent of task (METS) during minutes 4-8 of each nine-minute session were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 portable gas analyzer. A 3 (interval condition) X2 (sex) ANOVA was conducted to examine differences in average METS across groups and sex. Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 2, 123, F = 94.36, p \u3c .001, η2 = 0.605). Post hoc t-tests demonstrated decreasing performance interval times yielded significantly (p \u3c .001) and progressively higher metabolic expenditure across the three conditions (30 sec = 4.5 ± 0.8 METS, 12 sec = 6.3 ± 1.3), 6 sec = 8.3 ± 1.6). There also was a main effect for sex (df = 1, 120, F = 52.28, p \u3c .001 η2 = 0.305). Boys demonstrated higher METS at each performance interval (p \u3c .001). Average METS for boys and girls respectively were 9.3 (± 1.4) and 7.2 (± 1.2). METS during the six second intervals, 7.0 (± 1.1) and 5.6 (± 1.1) METS during 12 second intervals and 4.8 (± 0.7) and 4.1 (± 0.7) during 30 second intervals. Results indicate skill practice with a maximum of one trial every 30 seconds resulted in the equivalent of at least moderate physical activity (\u3e 4.0 METS) and intervals of 6 seconds demonstrated vigorous physical activity (\u3e 7.0 METS). These data indicate practicing/performing object projection skills, even at intervals that allow for instruction and feedback, (1 trial/30sec) is equivalent to MVPA levels in children. The purpose of Study 4 was to compare the EE levels during OPSP as assessed by hip- and wrist-worn accelerometry in children (7-9 years). Forty-two children (female n = 20, Mage = 8.1 ± 0.8 years) performed three, nine-minute sessions of kicking, over-arm throwing, and striking at performance intervals 0f 6, 12, and 30 seconds. EE was estimated METS using indirect calorimetry (COSMED k4b2) and accelerometers (ActiGraph GT3X+) worn on three different locations (hip, dominant wrist, and non-dominant-wrists). EE using indirect calorimetry demonstrated moderate-intensity physical activity (PA; 4.5 ± 0.8 METS – 30sec interval, 6.3 ± 1.3 METS – 12sec interval) to vigorous intensity PA (8.3 ± 1.7 METS – 6sec interval). However, hip-worn accelerometry predicted EE suggested only light-intensity PA (2.4 ± 0.2 METS – 30sec interval, 2.8 ± 0.5 METS – 12sec interval, 3.4 ± 0.7 METS – 6sec interval) dominant wrist-worn accelerometry predicted EE suggested only light-intensity PA (2.8 ± 0.8 METS – 30sec interval, 3.9 ± 0.6 METS – 12sec interval, 5.2 ± 0.9 METS – 6sec interval). Accelerometry does not accurately categorize the physical activity intensity level when performing OPSP skills, regardless of differences in performance intervals or accelerometer wear location in children. These data have the potential to significantly impact physical activity intervention strategies and the implementation of PE curricula attempting to promote moderate to vigorous PA by informing specific trial intervals which promote health-enhancing physical activity levels (i.e., MVPA). Information gleaned from this study provides evidence that the practice of OPSP can aid in the achievement (acute) of recommended health-enhancing levels of EE (i.e., MVPA), as well as promote a foundation for skill development that promotes lifelong physical activity

Early Human Vocalization Development: A Collection of Studies Utilizing Automated Analysis of Naturalistic Recordings and Neural Network Modeling

Understanding early human vocalization development is a key part of understanding the origins of human communication. What are the characteristics of early human vocalizations and how do they change over time? What mechanisms underlie these changes? This dissertation is a collection of three papers that take a computational approach to addressing these questions, using neural network simulation and automated analysis of naturalistic data.The first paper uses a self-organizing neural network to automatically derive holistic acoustic features characteristic of prelinguistic vocalizations. A supervised neural network is used to classify vocalizations into human-judged categories and to predict the age of the child vocalizing. The study represents a first step toward taking a data-driven approach to describing infant vocalizations. Its performance in classification represents progress toward developing automated analysis tools for coding infant vocalization types.The second paper is a computational model of early vocal motor learning. It adapts a popular type of neural network, the self-organizing map, in order to control a vocal tract simulator and in order to have learning be dependent on whether the model\u27s actions are reinforced. The model learns both to control production of sound at the larynx (phonation), an early-developing skill that is a prerequisite for speech, and to produce vowels that gravitate toward the vowels in a target language (either English or Korean) for which it is reinforced. The model provides a computationally-specified explanation for how neuromotor representations might be acquired in infancy through the combination of exploration, reinforcement, and self-organized learning.The third paper utilizes automated analysis to uncover patterns of vocal interaction between child and caregiver that unfold over the course of day-long, totally naturalistic recordings. The participants include 16- to 48-month-old children with and without autism. Results are consistent with the idea that there is a social feedback loop wherein children produce speech-related vocalizations, these are preferentially responded to by adults, and this contingency of adult response shapes future child vocalizations. Differences in components of this feedback loop are observed in autism, as well as with different maternal education levels

Beyond the Bayley: Neurocognitive Assessments of Development During Infancy and Toddlerhood

The use of global, standardized instruments is conventional among clinicians and researchers interested in assessing neurocognitive development. Exclusively relying on these tests for evaluating effects may underestimate or miss specific effects on early cognition. The goal of this review is to identify alternative measures for possible inclusion in future clinical trials and interventions evaluating early neurocognitive development. The domains included for consideration are attention, memory, executive function, language and socio-emotional development. Although domain-based tests are limited, as psychometric properties have not yet been well-established, this review includes tasks and paradigms that have been reliably used across various developmental psychology laboratories

Support for Play in Public School Kindergarten Classrooms: A Descriptive Multiple Case Study

This study explored the support for play in public school kindergarten classrooms in a single urban school district in the Northwest region of the United States. Through a three-phased data collection approach that included an online survey, in-person interviews, and classroom observations, the researcher gathered information to describe how teachers are supporting play through five key attributes: teacher perspectives, opportunities for play, the play environment, types of play, and the role of the teacher (teacher practices). The online survey was shared with all kindergarten teachers in the district, with nine survey participants who expressed high support for play selected to participate in one-on-one interviews. From the nine teachers interviewed, three were selected for classroom observations to describe support for play in the real-world context of the kindergarten classroom. The descriptive case studies of these three teachers revealed the following findings on support for play: kindergarten teachers view play as developmentally appropriate and synonymous with learning; daily opportunities are provided for free play and guided play experiences; playful kindergarten environments provide well-defined areas and organized materials for work and play; playful kindergarten classrooms support multiple types of play in child-initiated and teacher-initiated experiences; and teachers support play by creating structures and rules, responding to ensure safety, and advocating for play

EEG coherence between the verbal-analytical region (T3) and the motor-planning region (Fz) increases under stress in explicit motor learners but not implicit motor learners

This journal supplement contains abstracts of NASPSPA 2010Free Communications - Verbal and Poster: Motor Learning and Controlpublished_or_final_versionThe Annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA 2010), Tucson, AZ., 10-12 June 2010. In Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2010, v. 32 suppl., p. S13