All-sky signals from recombination to reionization with the SKA

Cosmic evolution in the hydrogen content of the Universe through recombination and up to the end of reionization is expected to be revealed as subtle spectral features in the uniform extragalactic cosmic radio background. The redshift evolution in the excitation temperature of the 21-cm spin flip transition of neutral hydrogen appears as redshifted emission and absorption against the cosmic microwave background. The precise signature of the spectral trace from cosmic dawn and the epoch of reionization are dependent on the spectral radiance, abundance and distribution of the first bound systems of stars and early galaxies, which govern the evolution in the spin-flip level populations. Redshifted 21 cm from these epochs when the spin temperature deviates from the temperature of the ambient relic cosmic microwave background results in an all-sky spectral structure in the 40-200 MHz range, almost wholly within the band of SKA-Low. Another spectral structure from gas evolution is redshifted recombination lines from epoch of recombination of hydrogen and helium; the weak all-sky spectral structure arising from this event is best detected at the upper end of the 350-3050 MHz band of SKA-mid. Total power spectra of SKA interferometer elements form the measurement set for these faint signals from recombination and reionization; the inter-element interferometer visibilities form a calibration set. The challenge is in precision polarimetric calibration of the element spectral response and solving for additives and unwanted confusing leakages of sky angular structure modes into spectral modes. Herein we discuss observing methods and design requirements that make possible these all-sky SKA measurements of the cosmic evolution of hydrogen.Comment: Accepted for publication in the SKA Science Book 'Advancing Astrophysics with the Square Kilometre Array', to appear in 201

Calibration of Correlation Radiometers Using Pseudo-Random Noise Signals

The calibration of correlation radiometers, and particularly aperture synthesis interferometric radiometers, is a critical issue to ensure their performance. Current calibration techniques are based on the measurement of the cross-correlation of receivers’ outputs when injecting noise from a common noise source requiring a very stable distribution network. For large interferometric radiometers this centralized noise injection approach is very complex from the point of view of mass, volume and phase/amplitude equalization. Distributed noise injection techniques have been proposed as a feasible alternative, but are unable to correct for the so-called “baseline errors” associated with the particular pair of receivers forming the baseline. In this work it is proposed the use of centralized Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN) signals to calibrate correlation radiometers. PRNs are sequences of symbols with a long repetition period that have a flat spectrum over a bandwidth which is determined by the symbol rate. Since their spectrum resembles that of thermal noise, they can be used to calibrate correlation radiometers. At the same time, since these sequences are deterministic, new calibration schemes can be envisaged, such as the correlation of each receiver’s output with a baseband local replica of the PRN sequence, as well as new distribution schemes of calibration signals. This work analyzes the general requirements and performance of using PRN sequences for the calibration of microwave correlation radiometers, and particularizes the study to a potential implementation in a large aperture synthesis radiometer using an optical distribution network

Polarimetric Microwave Radiometer Calibration.

A polarimetric radiometer is a radiometer with the capability to measure the correlation information between vertically and horizontally polarized electric fields. To better understand and calibrate this type of radiometer, several research efforts have been undertaken. 1) All microwave radiometer measurements of brightness temperature (TB) include an additive noise component. The variance and correlation statistics of the additive noise component of fully polarimetric radiometer measurements are derived from theoretical considerations and the resulting relationships are verified experimentally. It is found that the noise can be correlated among polarimetric channels and that the correlation statistics can vary as a function of the polarization state of the scene under observation. 2) A polarimetric radiometer calibration algorithm has been developed which makes use of the Correlated Noise Calibration Standard (CNCS) to aid in the characterization of microwave polarimetric radiometers and to characterize the non-ideal characteristics of the CNCS itself simultaneously. CNCS has been developed by the Space Physics Research Laboratory of the University of Michigan (SPRL). The calibration algorithm has been verified using the DetMit L-band radiometer. The precision of the calibration is estimated by Monte Carlo simulations. A CNCS forward model has been developed to describe the non-ideal characteristics of the CNCS. Impedance-mismatches between the CNCS and radiometer under test are also considered in the calibration. 3) The calibration technique is demonstrated by applying it to the Engineering Model (EM) of the NASA Aquarius radiometer. CNCS is used to calibrate the Aquarius radiometer – specifically to retrieve its channel phase imbalance and the thermal emission characteristics of transmission line between its antenna and receiver. The impact of errors in calibration of the radiometer channel phase imbalance on Sea Surface Salinity (SSS) retrievals by Aquarius is also analyzed. 4) The CNCS has also been used to calibrate the Breadboard Model (BM) of the L-band NASA Juno radiometer. In order to cover the broad TB dynamic range of the Juno radiometer, a special linearization process has been developed for the CNCS. The method combines multiple Arbitrary Waveform Generator gaussian noise signals with different values of variance to construct the necessary range of TB levelsPh.D.Electrical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/61741/1/jzhpeng_1.pd

An L-band Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) detection and mitigation testbed for microwave radiometry

Abstract—A microwave radiometer specifically designed to detect and mitigate many types of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is described. The L-band RFI Detection and Mitigation Testbed (DetMit Testbed) will not be optimized for radiometric observation as much as it is optimized for flexibility in the presence of RFI. While the DetMit Testbed will be a fully functional polarimetric L-band radiometer, the ultimate application of this instrument is not so much brightness measurements as it will be validation of RFI mitigation strategies for employment in future L-band (and other frequency) radiometers. The design approaches for the L-band RFI Detection and Mitigation Testbed are expected to apply to C-band and X-band, and presumably also to other frequencies of interest that experience RFI. Keywords-Detectors, digital radio, interference suppression, microwave radiometry. I

GNSS reflectometry for land remote sensing applications

Soil moisture and vegetation biomass are two essential parameters from a scienti c and economical point of view. On one hand, they are key for the understanding of the hydrological and carbon cycle. On the other hand, soil moisture is essential for agricultural applications and water management, and vegetation biomass is crucial for regional development programs. Several remote sensing techniques have been used to measure these two parameters. However, retrieving soil moisture and vegetation biomass with the required accuracy, and the appropriate spatial and temporal resolutions still remains a major challenge. The use of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) reflected signals as sources of opportunity for measuring soil moisture and vegetation biomass is assessed in this PhD Thesis. This technique, commonly known as GNSS-Reflectometry (GNSS-R), has gained increasing interest among the scienti c community during the last two decades due to its unique characteristics. Previous experimental works have already shown the capabilities of GNSS-R to sense small reflectivity changes on the surface. The use of the co- and cross-polarized reflected signals was also proposed to mitigate nuisance parameters, such as soil surface roughness, in the determination of soil moisture. However, experimental evidence of the suitability of that technique could not be demonstrated. This work analyses from a theoretical and an experimental point of view the capabilities of polarimetric observations of GNSS reflected signals for monitoring soil moisture and vegetation biomass. The Thesis is structured in four main parts. The fi rst part examines the fundamental aspects of the technique and provides a detailed review of the GNSS-R state of the art for soil moisture and vegetation monitoring. The second part deals with the scattering models from land surfaces. A comprehensive description of the formation of scattered signals from rough surfaces is provided. Simulations with current state of the art models for bare and vegetated soils were performed in order to analyze the scattering components of GNSS reflected signals. A simpli ed scattering model was also developed in order to relate in a straightforward way experimental measurements to soil bio-geophysical parameters. The third part reviews the experimental work performed within this research. The development of a GNSS-R instrument for land applications is described, together with the three experimental campaigns carried out in the frame of this PhD Thesis. The analysis of the GNSS-R and ground truth data is also discussed within this part. As predicted by models, it was observed that GNSS scattered signals from natural surfaces are a combination of a coherent and an incoherent scattering components. A data analysis technique was proposed to separate both scattering contributions. The use of polarimetric observations for the determination of soil moisture was demonstrated to be useful under most soil conditions. It was also observed that forests with high levels of biomass could be observed with GNSS reflected signals. The fourth and last part of the Thesis provides an analysis of the technology perspectives. A GNSS-R End-to-End simulator was used to determine the capabilities of the technique to observe di erent soil reflectivity conditions from a low Earth orbiting satellite. It was determined that high accuracy in the estimation of reflectivity could be achieved within reasonable on-ground resolution, as the coherent scattering component is expected to be the predominant one in a spaceborne scenario. The results obtained in this PhD Thesis show the promising potential of GNSS-R measurements for land remote sensing applications, which could represent an excellent complementary observation for a wide range of Earth Observation missions such as SMOS, SMAP, and the recently approved ESA Earth Explorer Mission Biomass.La humedad del suelo y la biomasa de la vegetaci on son dos parametros clave desde un punto de vista tanto cient co como econ omico. Por una parte son esenciales para el estudio del ciclo del agua y del carbono. Por otra parte, la humedad del suelo es esencial para la gesti on de las cosechas y los recursos h dricos, mientras que la biomasa es un par ametro fundamental para ciertos programas de desarrollo. Varias formas de teledetección se han utilizado para la observaci on remota de estos par ametros, sin embargo, su monitorizaci on con la precisi on y resoluci on necesarias es todav a un importante reto tecnol ogico. Esta Tesis evalua la capacidad de medir humedad del suelo y biomasa de la vegetaci on con señales de Sistemas Satelitales de Posicionamiento Global (GNSS, en sus siglas en ingl es) reflejadas sobre la Tierra. La t ecnica se conoce como Reflectometr í a GNSS (GNSS-R), la cual ha ganado un creciente inter es dentro de la comunidad científ ca durante las dos ultimas d ecadas. Experimentos previos a este trabajo ya demostraron la capacidad de observar cambios en la reflectividad del terreno con GNSS-R. El uso de la componente copolar y contrapolar de la señal reflejada fue propuesto para independizar la medida de humedad del suelo de otros par ametros como la rugosidad del terreno. Sin embargo, no se pudo demostrar una evidencia experimental de la viabilidad de la t ecnica. En este trabajo se analiza desde un punto de vista te orico y experimental el uso de la informaci on polarim etrica de la señales GNSS reflejadas sobre el suelo para la determinaci on de humedad y biomasa de la vegetaci on. La Tesis se estructura en cuatro partes principales. En la primera parte se eval uan los aspectos fundamentales de la t ecnica y se da una revisi on detallada del estado del arte para la observaci on de humedad y vegetaci on. En la segunda parte se discuten los modelos de dispersi on electromagn etica sobre el suelo. Simulaciones con estos modelos fueron realizadas para analizar las componentes coherente e incoherente de la dispersi on de la señal reflejada sobre distintos tipos de terreno. Durante este trabajo se desarroll o un modelo de reflexi on simpli cado para poder relacionar de forma directa las observaciones con los par ametros geof sicos del suelo. La tercera parte describe las campañas experimentales realizadas durante este trabajo y discute el an alisis y la comparaci on de los datos GNSS-R con las mediciones in-situ. Como se predice por los modelos, se comprob o experimentalmente que la señal reflejada est a formada por una componente coherente y otra incoherente. Una t ecnica de an alisis de datos se propuso para la separacióon de estas dos contribuciones. Con los datos de las campañas experimentales se demonstr o el bene cio del uso de la informaci on polarim etrica en las señales GNSS reflejadas para la medici on de humedad del suelo, para la mayor a de las condiciones de rugosidad observadas. Tambi en se demostr o la capacidad de este tipo de observaciones para medir zonas boscosas densamente pobladas. La cuarta parte de la tesis analiza la capacidad de la t ecnica para observar cambios en la reflectividad del suelo desde un sat elite en orbita baja. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que la reflectividad del terreno podr a medirse con gran precisi on ya que la componente coherente del scattering ser a la predominante en ese tipo de escenarios. En este trabajo de doctorado se muestran la potencialidades de la t ecnica GNSS-R para observar remotamente par ametros del suelo tan importantes como la humedad del suelo y la biomasa de la vegetaci on. Este tipo de medidas pueden complementar un amplio rango de misiones de observaci on de la Tierra como SMOS, SMAP, y Biomass, esta ultima recientemente aprobada para la siguiente misi on Earth Explorer de la ESA

Investigation of the microwave signatures of the Baltic Sea ice

It is essential for winter shipping in the Baltic Sea to get reliable and up-to-date information of its rapidly changing ice conditions. Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images are the only way to produce this information operationally in fine scale independent of daylight and nearly independent of weather conditions. Currently, classification algorithms for the RADARSAT-1 and ENVISAT SAR images utilize mainly the image structure and only limited information on sea ice geophysics and empirical statistics of backscattering signatures of various ice types are utilized. Therefore, interpretation of the classification results is often difficult. Both classification results and their interpretation should very likely improve with the addition of this information. Spaceborne microwave radiometer data are not suitable for the operational Baltic Sea ice monitoring aiding ship navigation due to their coarse spatial resolution, but they can provide an independent data source on the sea ice conditions for validation of the SAR classification algorithms. Both SAR and radiometer data based sea ice products can also be utilized in the geophysical studies of the Baltic Sea ice. In order to support development of operational classification algorithms for SAR and radiometer data, basic research on the microwave remote sensing of the Baltic Sea ice has been conducted in this work. The research work included the following topics: (1) statistics of C- and X-band backscattering signatures of various ice types, (2) statistics of L- and C-band polarimetric discriminants of various ice types, (3) radar incidence angle dependence of backscattering coefficient (σ°) in RADARSAT-1 SAR images, (4) dependence between standard deviation and measurement length for σ° signatures and its usability in sea ice classification, (5) comparison between SAR σ° time series and results from a thermodynamic snow/ice model, and (6) statistics of passive microwave signatures of various ice types. Additionally, a comprehensive literature review of the previous work on the microwave remote sensing of the Baltic Sea ice is presented. The main results of this work include the following. It is not possible to discriminate open water and various ice types using the level of σ°, co- or cross-polarization ratio, or standard deviation of σ°. C-band VH-polarized σ° at high incidence angle provides slightly better ice type discrimination accuracy than any other combination of C- and X-band radar parameters. VH-polarization is more suitable for estimating the degree of ice deformation than co-polarizations. Snow wetness has a large effect on the σ° statistics. Notably, when snow cover is wet then the σ° contrasts between various ice types are smaller than in the dry snow case. Incidence angle dependence of the C-band HH-polarized σ° was derived for level ice and deformed ice. It is utilized in the operational SAR classification algorithms developed by Finnish Institute of Marine Research. The method for deriving the σ° incidence angle dependence is applicable for any SAR sensor. There is a large variation of level ice σ° with changing weather conditions. A 1-D high-resolution thermodynamic snow/ice model generally helps to interpret changes in the σ° time series. The modeled snow and ice surface temperature, cases of snow melting, and evolution of snow and ice thickness are related to the changes in σ°. It was found out that the standard deviation of σ° for various ice types depends on the length of measurement. This may be utilized in the SAR image classification. It is not possible to resolve concentrations of thin new ice and all other ice types combined in the Baltic Sea using radiometer data as has been done for the Arctic seasonal ice zones.Talvimerenkulku Itämerellä tarvitsee luotettavaa ja ajantasaista informaatiota Itämeren nopeasti muuttuvista jääoloista. Synteettisen apertuurin tutkan (SAR) kuvat ovat ainoa tapa tuottaa operatiivisesti tarvittavaa jääinformaatiota riippumatta päivänvalon määrästä ja lähes riippumatta sääolosuhteista. RADARSAT-1 ja ENVISAT SAR-tutkakuvien luokittelualgoritmit perustuvat tällä hetkellä lähinnä kuvien rakenteeseen, eikä merijään geofysiikkaa ja empiiristä tilastotietoa eri jäätyyppien sirontavasteista hyödynnetä kuin rajallisesti. SAR-kuvien luokittelutulosten tulkitseminen on siten usein vaikeaa. Sekä itse luokittelutulokset, että niiden tulkinta parantuisivat, jos luokittelualgorimit hyödyntäisivät edellä mainittua tietoa. Satelliittiradiometrien kuvat eivät sovellu Itämeren jään operatiiviseen monitorointiin niiden karkean spatiaalisen resoluution vuoksi. Niillä kuitenkin voitaisiin validoida SAR-kuvien luokittelualgoritmeja, koska ne ovat SAR-kuvista riippumaton datalähde Itämeren jääoloista. Tässä työssä on suoritettu seuraavaa perustutkimusta Itämeren jään mikroaaltokaukokartoituksessa, minkä tarkoituksena on tukea SAR- ja radiometrikuvien operatiivisten luokittelualgoritmien kehitystyötä: (1) eri jäätyyppien C- ja X-kanavien sirontakertoimien (σ°) statistiikka, (2) eri jäätyyppien L- ja C-kanavien polarimetristen diskriminanttien statistiikka, (3) σ°:n mittauskulmariippuvuus RADARSAT-1 SAR-kuvissa, (4) σ°:n keskihajonnan ja mittausmatkan välinen riippuvuus ja hyödyntäminen jäätyyppiluokittelussa, (5) SAR-kuvien sirontakerroinaikasarjojen vertailu merijään termodynamiikkamalliin, ja (6) eri jäätyyppien kirkkauslämpötilojen statistiikka. Työssä saavutettiin seuraavia merkittäviä tuloksia. Eri jäätyyppien ja avoveden luokittelu ei ole mahdollista käyttäen sirontakerrointa, yhdensuuntais- ja ristipolarisaatiosuhdetta tai σ° keskihajontaa. C-kanavan VH-polarisaation σ° suurella mittauskulmalla luokittelee eri jäätyypit hieman paremmin kuin mikään muu C- ja X-kanavan tutkaparametrikombinaatio. Merijään deformoitumisasteen estimointiin sopii paremmin VH-polarisaation σ° kuin yhdensuuntaispolarisaation. Lumipeitteen kosteudella on suuri vaikutus sirontakerroinstatistiikkaan; erityisesti, kun lumipeite on märkä on sirontakerroinkontrasti eri jäätyyppien välillä pienempi kun lumipeite on kuiva. C-kanavan HH-polarisaation σ°:n mittauskulmariippuvuus määritettiin tasaiselle ja deformoituneelle jäälle. Mittauskulmariippuvuuden laskentamenetelmää voidaan käyttää mille tahansa SAR-tutkakuvalle. Muuttuvat sääolosuhteet aiheuttavat suuria muutoksia tasaisen jään σ°:ssa. Merijään termodynamiikkamalli yleensä auttaa selittämään muutoksia σ°:n aikasarjassa. σ°:n muutokset ovat yhteydessä termodynamiikkamallilla laskettuihin lumen ja jään parametreihin. σ°:n keskihajonnan havaittiin riippuvan etäisyydestä. Tätä riippuvuutta voitaneen hyödyntään SAR-kuvien luokittelussa. Itämerellä satelliittiradiometridatalla pystytään määrittämään vain merijään kokonaiskonsetraatio, toisin kuin arktisten merien kausiluontoisilla merijääalueilla, missä myös eri jäätyyppien konsentraatioiden määrittäminen on mahdollista.reviewe

GNSS-R as a source of opportunity for remote sensing of the cryosphere

This work evaluates the potential use of signals from the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) that scatter off the Earth surface for the retrieval of geophysical information from the cryosphere. For this purpose, the present study is based on data collected with a dedicated reflectometry GNSS receiver during two field campaigns, which were focused on two types of characteristic surfaces of the cryosphere: thin sea ice covers and thick dry snow accumulations. During the first experiment, the complete process of formation, evolution and melting of sea ice was monitorized for more than seven months in a bay located in Greenland. This type of ice is typically characterized by its thickness, concentration and roughness. Different observables from GNSS reflections are analyzed to try to infer these properties. The ice thickness is linked to the free-board level, defined as the height of the sea ice surface. Accurate phase altimetry is achieved, showing good agreement with an Arctic tide model. In addition, the long term results of ellipsoidal height retrievals are consistent with the evolution of the ice surface temperature product given by MODIS, which is a key parameter in the rate of growth of sea ice. On the other hand, the presence of salinity in the sea ice modifies its dielectric properties, resulting in different amplitude and phase for the co- and cross-polar components of the complex Fresnel coefficients. The polarimetric measurements obtained show good agreement with visual inspections of ice concentration from an Arctic weather station. Finally, the shape of the reflected signals and its phase dispersion are tested as potential signatures of surface roughness. For comparison, ice charts of the experimental area are employed. In particular, maximums in roughness given by the GNSS observables coincide with fast ice events. Fast ice is defined as ice anchored to the coast, where the tidal movements contribute to the development of strange patterns, cracks, and fissures on its surface, thus consistent with the GNSS-R roughness retrievals. The second experiment took place on Antarctica, monitoring a pristine snow area which is well-known for the calibration of remote sensing instruments. Due to the relative stability of the snow layers, the data acquisition was limited to ten continuous days. Interferometric beats were found after a first analysis of the amplitude from the collected signals, which were consistent with a multipath model where the reflector lies below the surface level. Motivated by these results, a forward model is developed that reconstructs the complex received signal as a sum of a finite number of reflections, coming from different snow layers (a snow density profile obtained from in-situ measurements). The interferometric information is then retrieved from the spectral analysis applied to time series from both real and modeled signals (lag-holograms). We find that the frequency bands predicted by the model are in general consistent with the data and the lag-holograms show repeatability for different days. Then, we attempt a proper inversion of the collected data to determine the dominant layers of the dry snow profile that contribute to L-band reflections, which are related to significant gradients of snow density/permittivity.Aquest treball avalua el possible ús dels senyals dels sistemes mundials de navegació per satèl lit (GNSS) que es reflecteixen a la superfície terrestre, per a l’extracció de la informació geofísica de la criosfera. Amb aquest propòsit, el present estudi es basa en dades recollides amb un reflectòmetre GNSS durant dues campanyes experimentals, centrades en dos tipus de superfícies característiques de la criosfera: cobertes de gel marí i gruixudes acumulacions de neu seca. En el primer experiment, el procés complet de formació, evolució i fusió del gel marí va ser monitoritzat durant més de set mesos a una badia situada a Groenlàndia. Aquest tipus de gel es caracteritza típicament amb el seu gruix, concentració i rugositat. Diferents observables de les reflexions GNSS són analitzats per tractar de fer una estimació d’aquestes propietats. El gruix de gel està relacionat amb el nivell de francbord, que a la seva vegada està relacionat amb l’alçada de la superfície de gel marí. S’ha aconseguit altimetria de fase precisa, que mostra correlació amb un model de marea de l’Àrtic. A més, els resultats a llarg termini de l’alçada elipsoidal segueixen l’evolució de les mesures de temperatura de superfície de gel donades per MODIS. La temperatura és un paràmetre clau en el ritme de creixement del gel marí. Per altra banda, la presència de sal a aquest tipus de gel modifica les seves propietats dielèctriques, el que implica variacions d’amplitud i fase per als coeficients de Fresnel complexos amb polaritzacions oposades. Les mesures polarimètriques obtingudes mostren concordança amb els valors de concentració de gel obtinguts des d’una estació meteorològica propera. Finalment, la forma de la senyal reflectida i la dispersió de la seva fase s’evaluen com a potencials indicadors de la rugositat de superfície. Per a la seva comparació, es fan servir mapes del gel de la zona experimental. En concret, els valors màxims a la rugositat estimada a partir pels observables GNSS coincideixen amb el gel fixe, que es refereix a gel ancorat a la costa, on els moviments de les marees contribueixen al desenvolupament de patrons estranys, esquerdes i fissures en la seva superfície. El segon experiment es va dur a terme a l’Antàrtida, monitoritzant una àrea de neu pristina que és ben coneguda per al calibratge d’instruments de teledetecció. A causa de la relativa estabilitat de les capes de neu, l’adquisició de dades es va limitar a deu dies consecutius. Es van trobar pulsacions interferomètriques a partir d’un primer anàlisi de l’amplitud de les senyals recollides, les quals eren compatibles amb un model de propagació multicamí a on el reflector es troba per sota del nivell de superfície. Com a conseqüència d’aquests resultats, s’ha desenvolupat un model que reconstrueix el senyal complexe rebut com la suma d’un nombre finit de reflexions, procedents de diferents capes de neu (determinat per mesures locals). La informació interferomètrica es recupera després de l’anàlisi espectral aplicat a les sèries temporals tant de les senyals reals, com de les modelades (lag-hologrames). Trobem que les bandes de freqüències predites pel model són en general consistents amb les dades i que els lag-hologrames mostren repetibilitat per dies diferents. Posteriorment, es realitza un anàlisi de les dades recollides per determinar les capes dominants del perfil de neu seca que contribueixen a les reflexions en banda L, i que a la seva vegada, estan relacionades amb gradents significatius de densitat/permitivitat.Este trabajo evalúa el posible uso de las señales de los sistemas globales de navegación por satélite (GNSS) que se reflejan en la superficie terrestre para la extracción de información geofísica de la criosfera. Con este propósito, el presente estudio se basa en datos recogidos con un reflectómetro GNSS durante dos campañas experimentales, centradas en dos tipos de superficies características de la criosfera: capas de hielo marino y gruesas acumulaciones de nieve seca. Durante el primer experimento, el proceso completo de formación, evolución y fusión del hielo marino fue monitorizado durante más de siete meses en una bahía ubicada en Groenlandia. Este tipo de hielo se caracteriza típicamente por su grosor, concentración y rugosidad. Diferentes observables de las reflexiones GNSS son analizados para tratar de estimar dichas propiedades. El espesor de hielo está relacionado con el nivel de francobordo o borda libre, que a su vez está relacionado con la altura de la superficie de hielo marino. Se ha logrado altimetría de fase precisa, mostrando correlación con un modelo de marea del Ártico. Además, los resultados a largo plazo de la altura elipsoidal siguen la evolución de las mediciones de temperatura de superficie de hielo proporcionadas por MODIS. La temperatura es un parámetro clave en el ritmo de crecimiento del hielo marino. Por otro lado, la presencia de sal en este tipo de hielo modifica sus propiedades dieléctricas, lo que implica variaciones en las amplitudes y fases de los coeficientes complejos de Fresnel con polarizaciones opuestas. Los resultados polarimétricos concuerdan con los valores de concentración de hielo obtenidos mediante inspección visual desde una estación meteorológica cercana. Por último, la forma de la señal reflejada y la dispersión de su fase son evaluadas como potenciales indicadores de la rugosidad de superficie. Para su comparación, se emplean mapas del hielo de la zona experimental. En particular, valores máximos de rugosidad estimada por los observables GNSS coinciden con hielo fijo, que se refiere al hielo anclado a la costa, donde los movimientos de las mareas contribuyen al desarrollo de patrones extraños, grietas y fisuras en su superficie. El segundo experimento se llevó a cabo en la Antártida, monitorizando una área de nieve pristina que es bien conocida para la calibración de instrumentos de teledetección. Debido a la relativa estabilidad de las capas de nieve, la adquisición de datos se limitó a diez días consecutivos. Se encontraron pulsaciones interferométricas a partir de un primer análisis de la amplitud de las señales recibidas, las cuales eran compatibles con un modelo de propagación multicamino donde el reflector se encuentra por debajo del nivel de la superficie. Como consecuencia de estos resultados, se ha desarrollado un modelo que reconstruye la señal recibida como la suma de un número finito de reflexiones, procedentes de diferentes capas de nieve (caracterizados por mediciones locales). La información interferométrica se recupera después del análisis espectral aplicado a las series temporales tanto de las señales reales, como de las modeladas (lag-hologramas). Encontramos que las bandas de frecuencias predichas por el modelo son en general consistentes con los datos y que los lag-hologramas muestran repetibilidad para días diferentes. Posteriormente, se realiza un análisis de los datos recogidos para determinar las capas dominantes del perfil de nieve seca que contribuyen a las reflexiones en banda L, y que a su vez, están relacionadas con gradientes significativos de densidad/permitivida

GNSS transpolar earth reflectometry exploriNg system (G-TERN): mission concept

The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) Transpolar Earth Reflectometry exploriNg system (G-TERN) was proposed in response to ESA's Earth Explorer 9 revised call by a team of 33 multi-disciplinary scientists. The primary objective of the mission is to quantify at high spatio-temporal resolution crucial characteristics, processes and interactions between sea ice, and other Earth system components in order to advance the understanding and prediction of climate change and its impacts on the environment and society. The objective is articulated through three key questions. 1) In a rapidly changing Arctic regime and under the resilient Antarctic sea ice trend, how will highly dynamic forcings and couplings between the various components of the ocean, atmosphere, and cryosphere modify or influence the processes governing the characteristics of the sea ice cover (ice production, growth, deformation, and melt)? 2) What are the impacts of extreme events and feedback mechanisms on sea ice evolution? 3) What are the effects of the cryosphere behaviors, either rapidly changing or resiliently stable, on the global oceanic and atmospheric circulation and mid-latitude extreme events? To contribute answering these questions, G-TERN will measure key parameters of the sea ice, the oceans, and the atmosphere with frequent and dense coverage over polar areas, becoming a “dynamic mapper”of the ice conditions, the ice production, and the loss in multiple time and space scales, and surrounding environment. Over polar areas, the G-TERN will measure sea ice surface elevation (<;10 cm precision), roughness, and polarimetry aspects at 30-km resolution and 3-days full coverage. G-TERN will implement the interferometric GNSS reflectometry concept, from a single satellite in near-polar orbit with capability for 12 simultaneous observations. Unlike currently orbiting GNSS reflectometry missions, the G-TERN uses the full GNSS available bandwidth to improve its ranging measurements. The lifetime would be 2025-2030 or optimally 2025-2035, covering key stages of the transition toward a nearly ice-free Arctic Ocean in summer. This paper describes the mission objectives, it reviews its measurement techniques, summarizes the suggested implementation, and finally, it estimates the expected performance.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version