Gesture as a Communication Strategy in Second Language Discourse : A Study of Learners of French and Swedish

Gesture is always mentioned in descriptions of compensatory behaviour in second language discourse, yet it has never been adequately integrated into any theory of Communication Strategies (CSs). This study suggests a method for achieving such an integration. By combining a cognitive theory of speech-associated gestures with a process-oriented framework for CSs, gesture and speech can be seen as reflections of similar underlying processes with different output modes. This approach allows oral and gestural CSs to be classified and analysed within a unified framework. The respective fields are presented in introductory surveys, and a review is provided of studies dealing specifically with compensatory gesture–in aphasia as well as in first and second language acquisition. The experimental part of this work consists of two studies. The production study examines the gestures exploited strategically by Swedish learners of French and French learners of Swedish. The subjects retold a cartoon story in their foreign language to native speakers in conversational narratives. To enable comparisons between learners and proficiency conditions both at individual and group level, subjects performed the task in both their first and their second language. The results show that, contrary to expectations in both fields, strategic gestures do not replace speech, but complement it. Moreover, although strategic gestures are used to solve lexical problems by depicting referential features, most learner gestures instead serve either to maintain visual co-reference at discourse level, or to provide metalinguistic comments on the communicative act itself. These latter functions have hitherto been ignored in CS research. Both similarities and differences can be found between oral and gestural CSs regarding the effect of proficiency, culture, task, and success. The influence of individual communicative style and strategic communicative competence is also discussed. Finally, native listeners’ gestural behaviour is shown to be related to the co-operative effort invested by them to ensure continued interaction, which in turn depends on the proficiency levels of the non-native narrators. The evaluation study investigates native speakers’ assessments of subjects’ gestures, and the effect of gestures on evaluations of proficiency. Native speakers rank all subjects as showing normal or reduced gesture rates and ranges–irrespective of proficiency condition. The influence of gestures on proficiency assessments is modest, but tends to be positive. The results concerning the effectiveness of gestural strategies are inconclusive, however. When exposed to auditory learner data only, listeners believe gestures would improve comprehension, but when learner gestures can be seen, they are not regarded as helpful. This study stresses the need to further examine the effect of strategic behaviour on assessments, and the perception of gestures in interaction. An integrated theory of Communication Strategies has to consider that gestures operate in two ways: as local measures of communicative ‘first-aid’, and as global communication enhancement for speakers and listeners alike. A probabilistic framework is outlined, where variability in performance as well as psycholinguistic and interactional aspects of gesture use are taken into account

The role of metalinguistic awareness and of L2 proficiency in positive lexical transfer from English (L2) to German (L3) by French-speaking Quebeckers

Il a été avancé que des apprenants expérimentés développeraient des niveaux élevés de conscience métalinguistique (MLA), ce qui leur faciliterait l'apprentissage de langues subséquentes (p.ex., Singleton & Aronin, 2007). De plus, des chercheurs dans le domaine de l'acquisition des langues tierces insistent sur les influences positives qu'exercent les langues précédemment apprises sur l'apprentissage formel d'une langue étrangère (p.ex., Cenoz & Gorter, 2015), et proposent de délaisser le regard traditionnel qui mettait l'accent sur l'interférence à l'origine des erreurs des apprenants pour opter pour une vision plus large et positive de l'interaction entre les langues. Il a été démontré que la similarité typologique ainsi que la compétence dans la langue source influence tous les types de transfert (p.ex., Ringbom, 1987, 2007). Cependant, le défi méthodologique de déterminer, à la fois l'usage pertinent d'une langue cible en tant que résultat d'une influence translinguistique (p.ex., Falk & Bardel, 2010) et d'établir le rôle crucial de la MLA dans l'activation consciente de mots ou de constructions reliés à travers différentes langues, demeure. La présente étude avait pour but de relever ce double défi en faisant appel à des protocoles oraux (TAPs) pour examiner le transfert positif de l'anglais (L2) vers l'allemand (L3) chez des Québécois francophones après cinq semaines d'enseignement formel de la L3. Les participants ont été soumis à une tâche de traduction développée aux fins de la présente étude. Les 42 items ont été sélectionnés sur la base de jugements de similarité et d'imagibilité ainsi que de fréquence des mots provenant d'une étude de cognats allemands-anglais (Friel & Kennison, 2001). Les participants devaient réfléchir à voix haute pendant qu'ils traduisaient des mots inconnus de l'allemand (L3) vers le français (L1). Le transfert positif a été opérationnalisé par des traductions correctes qui étaient basées sur un cognat anglais. La MLA a été mesurée par le biais du THAM (Test d'habiletés métalinguistiques) (Pinto & El Euch, 2015) ainsi que par l'analyse des TAPs. Les niveaux de compétence en anglais ont été établis sur la base du Michigan Test (Corrigan et al., 1979), tandis que les niveaux d'exposition ainsi que l'intérêt envers la langue et la culture allemandes ont été mesurés à l'aide d'un questionnaire. Une analyse fine des TAPs a révélé de la variabilité inter- et intra-individuelle dans l'activation consciente du vocabulaire en L2, tout en permettant l'identification de niveaux distincts de prise de conscience. Deux modèles indépendants de régressions logistiques ont permis d'identifier les deux dimensions de MLA comme prédicteurs de transfert positif. Le premier modèle, dans lequel le THAM était la mesure exclusive de MLA, a déterminé cette dimension réflexive comme principal prédicteur, suivie de la compétence en anglais, tandis qu'aucune des autres variables indépendantes pouvait prédire le transfert positif de l'anglais. Dans le second modèle, incluant le THAM ainsi que les TAPs comme mesures complémentaires de MLA, la dimension appliquée de MLA, telle que mesurée par les TAPs, était de loin le prédicteur principal, suivie de la dimension réflexive, telle que mesurée par le THAM, tandis que la compétence en anglais ne figurait plus parmi les facteurs ayant une influence significative sur la variable réponse. Bien que la verbalisation puisse avoir influencé la performance dans une certaine mesure, nos observations mettent en évidence la contribution précieuse de données introspectives comme complément aux résultats basés sur des caractéristiques purement linguistiques du transfert. Nos analyses soulignent la complexité des processus métalinguistiques et des stratégies individuelles, ce qui reflète une perspective dynamique du multilinguisme (p.ex., Jessner, 2008).It has been posited that experienced language learners develop higher levels of metalinguistic awareness (MLA), which, in turn, appears to facilitate the acquisition of subsequent languages (e.g., Singleton & Aronin, 2007). Moreover, researchers in the field of Third Language Acquisition (TLA) emphasize the positive influences of previously acquired languages in foreign language classrooms (e.g., Cenoz & Gorter, 2015), in contrast to the traditional focus on interference-based learner errors in the study of language transfer. Typological similarity and source language proficiency are known to influence transfer processes of any kind (e.g., Ringbom, 1987, 2007). However, it remains a methodological challenge both to identify the felicitous use of a target language feature as an effect of cross-linguistic influence (e.g., Falk & Bardel, 2010) and to clearly determine the role of MLA for the conscious activation of related words or constructions across languages. The present study aimed at meeting this double challenge by using think-aloud protocols (TAPs) to investigate positive lexical transfer from English (L2) to German (L3) by French-speaking Quebeckers (N = 66) after five weeks of formal L3 instruction. Participants completed a translation task consisting of 42 items selected on the basis of similarity and imageability ratings as well as word frequencies (Friel & Kennison, 2001). Participants were asked to think aloud while attempting to translate these largely unknown words from German (L3) into French (L1). Positive transfer was operationalized by correct translations that were related to an English cognate. Levels of MLA were measured by means of the THAM (Test d'habiletés métalinguistiques) (Pinto & El Euch, 2015) and complemented by the analysis of the TAPs. Proficiency levels in English were established by means of the Michigan Test (Corrigan et al., 1979), whereas exposure to the different languages as well as interest in the German language and culture were addressed in a background questionnaire. A fine-grained analysis of the TAPs revealed inter- and intra-individual variability in the conscious activation of related L2 vocabulary while allowing for an identification of distinct levels of awareness. Two independent models of logistic regressions revealed that both dimensions of MLA significantly predicted positive transfer. The first model, which featured the THAM as the exclusive measure of MLA, identified this reflexive dimension as the strongest predictor, followed by English language proficiency, whereas none of the other independent variables predicted positive transfer from English. In the second model, which included both the THAM and the TAPs as complementary measures of MLA, the applied dimension of MLA, as measured by the TAPs, was by far the strongest predictor, followed by the reflexive dimension, measured by the THAM, while English proficiency was no longer a significant predictor. Despite the fact that verbalization may have influenced overall performance to a certain extent, our observations point to the invaluable contribution of introspective data to complement findings based on language-inherent characteristics of crosslinguistic influence. Our analyses highlight the complexity of metalinguistic processes and individual strategies related to learner and context variables, in line with a dynamic view of multilingualism (e.g., Jessner, 2008a)

The speech of men and women in contemporary French: The function of parenthetical remarks and the pragmatic particles c'est-a-dire, enfin, hein and quoi.

This thesis sets out to test Lakoff's (1975) hypothesis that women's speech is more polite or tentative than men's through a detailed analysis of the usage, in a sample of contemporary spoken French, of parenthetical remarks (PRs) and the pragmatic particles (PPs) c'est-a-dire, enfin, hein and quoi. PRs and PPs serve both the repair requirements and the social interactional 'face-work' which are characteristic of spontaneous speech. Qualitative and quantitative investigations were conducted on the seventeen-hour corpus of orthographically-transcribed spontaneous speech. The aim of the qualitative analysis was to evaluate the contextual factors which may motivate the use of PRs and PPs. The quantitative analysis, by contrast, set out to measure the distributional frequencies of their usage according to the sex, age and educational background of the speakers. Whilst the detailed exploration of contingent factors such as the social roles adopted by the speakers demonstrates the value of a qualitative account, the fact that it is possible to make generalisable or falsifiable pronouncements on the basis of results found to be statistically significant in the data legitimises the adoption of a quantitative account. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses presume a prior sub-categorisation of the pragmatic usages of the linguistic item under investigation. The thesis arrives at the conclusion that, if men's and women's usage of PRs and PPs differs in the corpus, the asymmetry lies not in the degree of tentativeness displayed but rather in the use made of such expressions to introduce explanatory ramification and to mediate repair, both of which are favoured to a greater extent by the male speakers in our corpus. If the female speakers display greater politeness, it lies in their more adroit usage of the PPs to structure discourse and to maintain contact with their interlocutor

Self and Other in Dialogue

This volume contains a collection of papers which deal with Romance linguistics from the perspective of discourse and interaction. Some contributions cover areas such as spoken corpora, speech and linguistic description, and phonetic aspects of speech. Others focus on multimodality, pragmatics, and conversation and discourse, and there are also contributions which deal with speech and sociolinguistics, and speech in multilingualism/bilingualism. This volume is multilingual, containing as it does contributions written in English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish

Proceedings of the VIIth GSCP International Conference

The 7th International Conference of the Gruppo di Studi sulla Comunicazione Parlata, dedicated to the memory of Claire Blanche-Benveniste, chose as its main theme Speech and Corpora. The wide international origin of the 235 authors from 21 countries and 95 institutions led to papers on many different languages. The 89 papers of this volume reflect the themes of the conference: spoken corpora compilation and annotation, with the technological connected fields; the relation between prosody and pragmatics; speech pathologies; and different papers on phonetics, speech and linguistic analysis, pragmatics and sociolinguistics. Many papers are also dedicated to speech and second language studies. The online publication with FUP allows direct access to sound and video linked to papers (when downloaded)

The Pragmatic Particles enfin and écoute in French Film and TV Dialogue

This thesis investigates the use of the pragmatic particles (PPs) 'enfin' and 'écoute' in French film dialogue, and their translations in British English subtitles. Using a corpus of nine films and eight episodes drawn from two television series – all released in the UK between 2005 and 2015, and equating to approximately twenty-two hours – the study identifies tokens across a much wider range of contexts than has previously been possible using traditional corpora. The main contribution is an analysis of PP functions. The results for 'enfin' show a different functional distribution of the particle to other corpora, with corrective 'enfin' occurring significantly less frequently. The relatively large number of tokens of performative and emotional (or affective) 'enfin' allows for an elaboration of these two categories, and a tendency is observed for 'enfin' to appear as an apparent disagreement mitigator in discussions between peers. With regard to 'écoute', it is argued that écoute1 functions as a face-threat mitigator in unequal relationships and écoute2 as an FTA, although the particle is multifunctional and some tokens exhibit characteristics of both categories. Attention is given to combinations of 'enfin' and 'écoute' with other particles: while there is a clear tendency for disagreement-mitigating 'enfin' to co-occur with 'mais', and for the precision and restrictive subcategories of the corrective to co-occur with 'je veux dire', other previously documented combinations ('enfin bon' and 'ben écoute') are not frequently occurring in the present corpus. The thesis also makes a significant contribution to the field of Audiovisual Translation (AVT). The English subtitles show high rates of omission for both particles consistent with previous research, with disagreement-mitigating 'enfin' particularly vulnerable to omission. However, the analysis reveals a surprising pattern regarding 'écoute': a clear division of labour between ‘look’ (used to translate more confrontational tokens) and ‘listen’ (more conciliatory and socially distant). The study includes an experimental analysis of the subtitles relative to their character limits, demonstrating a potential new approach for researchers wishing to investigate the impact of various subtitling constraints.Arts and Humanities Research Counci

Self and Other in Dialogue

This volume contains a collection of papers which deal with Romance linguistics from the perspective of discourse and interaction. Some contributions cover areas such as spoken corpora, speech and linguistic description, and phonetic aspects of speech. Others focus on multimodality, pragmatics, and conversation and discourse, and there are also contributions which deal with speech and sociolinguistics, and speech in multilingualism/bilingualism. This volume is multilingual, containing as it does contributions written in English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish

The significance of silence. Long gaps attenuate the preference for ‘yes’ responses in conversation.

In conversation, negative responses to invitations, requests, offers and the like more often occur with a delay – conversation analysts talk of them as dispreferred. Here we examine the contrastive cognitive load ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses make, either when given relatively fast (300 ms) or delayed (1000 ms). Participants heard minidialogues, with turns extracted from a spoken corpus, while having their EEG recorded. We find that a fast ‘no’ evokes an N400-effect relative to a fast ‘yes’, however this contrast is not present for delayed responses. This shows that an immediate response is expected to be positive – but this expectation disappears as the response time lengthens because now in ordinary conversation the probability of a ‘no’ has increased. Additionally, however, 'No' responses elicit a late frontal positivity both when they are fast and when they are delayed. Thus, regardless of the latency of response, a ‘no’ response is associated with a late positivity, since a negative response is always dispreferred and may require an account. Together these results show that negative responses to social actions exact a higher cognitive load, but especially when least expected, as an immediate response

Designed and emerging affordances in tutor-learner multimodal interactions via videoconferencing for second language learning and teaching: an activity theoretical approach

Videoconferencing for L2 learning affords the unique possibility of online synchronous interaction with L2 expert speakers using web-camera, microphone and text chat; pin marking students’ errors on the oral recordings; generating online feedback, etc. However, distance learning mediated by technology also presents inherent complexities due to multiple spaces, timescales, cultures and norms that are different from a classroom environment. This makes the study of affordances important to inform videoconference embedded L2 pedagogy. An affordance designates an action possibility, positive or negative, that is offered by an object or environment to an actor in the environment. Few studies have analysed the emergence and realisation of affordances in learning environments with substantial socio-cultural, pedagogical and technological components. Drawing on Cultural Historical Activity Theory, this thesis investigates the emergence and realisation of linguistic, pedagogical, technological and socio-cultural affordances in tutor-tutee multimodal interactions via videoconferencing. Master’s students (teacher-trainees) of French as a foreign language from a French University interacted online via videoconferencing with undergraduate Business students learning French at an Irish University over a period of 6 weeks. The tutor-tutee online interactions generated a multimodal corpus that provided the data for this activity-theoretical study. Activity systems at the macro, meso and micro levels were modelled, and the designed and emerging affordances were identified. Furthermore, new actions emerged to overcome manifestations of contradictions at the macro inter-institutional interaction level and at the micro level of moment-to-moment tutor-tutee interactions. The findings reveal that the design of pedagogical and technological tools, institutional norms and the division of labour within and between institutions triggered multi-level intra and inter-systemic contradictions. These were resolved by the creation of novel mediating tools and models as well as more learner-centred pedagogical interactions. Consequently, a taxonomy of technological, pedagogical and social affordances is suggested to help inform videoconference embedded L2 pedagogical design and teacher training