Flexibility in the implementation of intellectual property rights in agricultural biotechnology

In this paper I discuss the fact that economists define optimal IP rights as a continuum of options in three dimensions: height, breadth and length. At the operational level we see the impossibility of multiplying rights indefinitely (due to prohibitive transaction costs), as well as the use of a limited number of IP tools which have led to the implementation of flexibilities. These flexibilities are designed to limit certain perverse effects of rights ill-adjusted to the characteristics of some economic sectors (agricultural biotechnologies, pharmacy, etc.). In this context, I analyse how these flexibilities are implemented in TRIPS and TRIPS+ agreements and I study the consequences for Developing Countries.TRIPS;INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS;PATENT;AGRICULTURE;INNOVATION

Biodiversity and international stakes : a question of access

This paper examines three main questions: Is it possible to create a market for genetic resources? Is it a perfectly or an imperfectly competitive market? What impact could this market have on the management of Biodiversity in the context of sustainable development? The author analyses the conditions for "access" and "use" of knowledge of genetic resources and the genetic resources themselves. Then he considers the consequences on the management of genetic resources and social welfare trends in the context of sustainable development. He presents product and technology transfers in terms of access and user rights. He shows that the lack of information on the quality of biological resources and on their value on both the demand and supply sides lead to an imperfect market model. He examines how benefit-sharing can be achieved via public research institutions in developed countries and the conditions of their access to private patent licences. The main conclusion of this paper is that a valorisation of developing countries' genetic resources is a means, among others, of accomplishing a sustainable management of biodiversity by an equitable access and benefit-sharing from the use of biodiversity: direct use of natural and biological resources; valorisation of genetic resources; development of new economic sectors, Etc. Furthermore, it enables taking part in the economic and social development of these countries (increasing the social welfare in a context of sustainable development) by widening the access to genetic resources.BIODIVERSITY; BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY; GENETIC RESOURCES; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHT; PATENT

Do broad patents deter research cooperation ?

The authors develop a theoretical model where two competing firms need access to basic knowledge that only one firm owns. They determine the impact of an imperfect property right on the incentive to transfer that knowledge to the competitor. They compare these transfer strategies. (i) Patenting may lead to litigation costs that depend on the competition toughness. (ii) Keeping the knowledge secret involves no licence revenue but ensures a monopoly profit. (iii) The firm can also coooperate with the competitor and thereby avoids litigation. They show that whenever competition between both firms is low, making patentable basic knowledge promotes knowledge transfer through research cooperation.INNOVATION;SECRET;PATENT;cooperation;KNOWLEDGE SHARING

Variety and the evolution of refinery processing

Evolutionary theories of economic development stress the role of variety as both a determinant and a result of growth. In this paper we develop a measure of variety, based on Weitzman's maximum likelihood procedure. This measure is based on the distance between products, and indicates the degree of differentiation of a product population. We propose a generic method, which permits to regroup the products with very similar characteristics values before choosing randomly the product models to be used to calculate Weitzman's measure. We apply the variety measure to process characteristics of oil refining. The results obtained for this technology show classic evolutionary specialization patterns that can be understood on the basis of niche theory. Here the changes in variety are related to changes in the range of the services the technology considered can deliver, range which plays a role similar to that of the size of the habitat of a biological species.TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; REFINERY PROCESSES; NICHE THEORY; WEITZMAN MEASURE

Landscape genomics and biased FST approaches reveal single nucleotide polymorphisms under selection in goat breeds of North-East Mediterranean

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In this study we compare outlier loci detected using a <it>F<smcaps>ST </smcaps></it>based method with those identified by a recently described method based on spatial analysis (SAM). We tested a panel of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously genotyped in individuals of goat breeds of southern areas of the Mediterranean basin (Italy, Greece and Albania). We evaluate how the SAM method performs with SNPs, which are increasingly employed due to their high number, low cost and easy of scoring.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The combined use of the two outlier detection approaches, never tested before using SNP polymorphisms, resulted in the identification of the same three loci involved in milk and meat quality data by using the two methods, while the <it>F<smcaps>ST </smcaps></it>based method identified 3 more loci as under selection sweep in the breeds examined.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Data appear congruent by using the two methods for <it>F<smcaps>ST </smcaps></it>values exceeding the 99% confidence limits. The methods of <it>F<smcaps>ST </smcaps></it>and SAM can independently detect signatures of selection and therefore can reduce the probability of finding false positives if employed together. The outlier loci identified in this study could indicate adaptive variation in the analysed species, characterized by a large range of climatic conditions in the rearing areas and by a history of intense trade, that implies plasticity in adapting to new environments.</p

Microsatellite diversity of the Nordic type of goats in relation to breed conservation: how relevant is pure ancestry?

In the last decades, several endangered breeds of livestock species have been re-established effectively. However, the successful revival of the Dutch and Danish Landrace goats involved crossing with exotic breeds and the ancestry of the current populations is therefore not clear. We have generated genotypes for 27 FAO-recommended microsatellites of these landraces and three phenotypically similar Nordic-type landraces and compared these breeds with central European, Mediterranean and south-west Asian goats. We found decreasing levels of genetic diversity with increasing distance from the south-west Asian domestication site with a south-east-to-north-west cline that is clearly steeper than the Mediterranean east-to-west cline. In terms of genetic diversity, the Dutch Landrace comes next to the isolated Icelandic breed, which has an extremely low diversity. The Norwegian coastal goat and the Finnish and Icelandic landraces are clearly related. It appears that by a combination of mixed origin and a population bottleneck, the Dutch and Danish Land-races are separated from the other breeds. However, the current Dutch and Danish populations with the multicoloured and long-horned appearance effectively substitute for the original breed, illustrating that for conservation of cultural heritage, the phenotype of a breed is more relevant than pure ancestry and the genetic diversity of the original breed. More in general, we propose that for conservation, the retention of genetic diversity of an original breed and of the visual phenotype by which the breed is recognized and defined needs to be considered separately

Conservation du patrimoine génétique: aspects économiques et institutionnels

La confusion des débats préparatoires à la conférence internationale sur la biodiversité laissait présager les difficultés actuelles de sa mise en application. Ces problèmes tiennent pour partie aux carences de l'analyse économique des ressources génétiques : quelle est leur valeur ? Comment circulent-elles ? Cet article vise à répondre à de telles questions en développant une approche micro-économique de la conservation des ressources génétiques. Ce faisant, il apporte des indications sur les caractéristiques institutionnelles internationales à recommander pour la régulation de ces ressources