Role of Traditional Ethnobotanical Knowledge and Indigenous Institutions in Sustainable Land Management in Western Highlands of Kenya

The objective of this chapter is to elucidate the relevance of indigenous knowledge and institutions in natural resource management using western highlands of Kenya as a case study. The research design was a mixed method, combining qualitative and quantitative methods. A total of 350 individuals (comprising farmers, herbalists and charcoal burners) from households were interviewed using a structured questionnaire, 50 in-depth interviews and 35 focus group discussions. The results show that indigenous knowledge and institutions play a significant role in conserving natural resources in the study area. There was gender differentiation in knowledge attitude and practice (KAP) of indigenous knowledge as applied to sustainable land management. It is recommended that deliberate efforts should be put in place by the County Governments to scale up the roles of indigenous institutions in managing natural resources in the study area

Toward a Hydro-Economic Approach for Risk Assessment and Mitigation Planning of Water Disasters in Semi-Arid Kenya

This study evaluates hydro-geomorphologic risks, and social and economic impacts associated with farming and water use in dry and marginal lands. Hydro-economic risk assessment offers a novel framework towards sustainable management of agricultural water in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). The risk assessment conducted in Muooni Dam Catchment of Kenya utilized a “hydro-economic” procedure to assess risks related to farming activity, water and land use. The process provides for mitigation planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of water disasters in the catchment area, focusing on effects of farming on water and land, social welfare and economic efficiency

Determinants of Farmers’ Decisions to Adopt Adaptation Technologies in Eastern Uganda

Using the Heckman sample selectivity model, this study identified farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate variability in Eastern Uganda, in order to support development of public policy and investment that can help increase adaptation to climate variability. The study was based on the premise that farmers who perceive change in climate and respond (or fail respond) share some common characteristics, which are important in understanding the reasons underlying their response (or failure to respond). Stratified random sampling was used to obtain a sample of 353 households across the three agro-ecological zones in Eastern Uganda, from which data was collected. In addition, 9 focus group discussions and 23 Key Informants Interviews were conducted, targeting smallholder farmers and agricultural stakeholders in the region. Results indicate that farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation technologies are primarily determined by their perceptions of rainfall adequacy (subjective index). The probability of adoption of adaptation technologies by male headed households and those with more members showed a 12% and 23% higher chance of adaptation respectively as compared to their counterparts. These factors relate to labour endowment, implying the need to build strong social protection mechanisms at household and community levels.    The probability of responding to climate variability also varied by location with a 15% and 6% smaller chance for location in Mbale and Sironko respectively as compared to Pallisa. Access to weather information is the single most important factor affecting farmers’ perceptions of climate variability, implying the need to develop and dissemination appropriate weather information to guide farmers in making adaptation decisions.   Key words: Adaptation, Climate Variability, Eastern Ugand

Numerical simulation of weather over Kenya using Weather Research and Forecasting - Environmental Modelling System (WRF-EMS)

This paper focuses on one of the high resolution models used for weather forecasting at Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD). It reviews the skill and accuracy of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) - Environmental Modeling System (EMS) model, in simulating weather over Kenya. The study period was March to May 2011, during the rainy season over Kenya. The model output was compared with the observed data from 27 synoptic stations spread over the study area, to determine the performance of the model in terms of its skill and accuracy in forecasting. The spatial distribution of rainfall and temperature showed that the WRF model was capable of reproducing the observed general pattern especially for temperature. The model has skill in forecasting both rainfall and temperature over the study area. However, the model may underestimate rainfall of more than 10 mm/day and displace its location and overestimate rainfall of less than 1 mm/day. Therefore, during the period of enhanced rainfall especially in the month of April and part of May the model forecast needs to be complemented by other models or forecasting methods before giving a forecast. There is need to improve its performance over the domain through review of the parameterization of small scale physical processes and more observed data need to be simulated into the model

Population Levels of Indigenous Bradyrhizobia Nodulating Promiscuous Soybean in two Kenyan Soils of the Semi-arid and Semi-humid Agroecological Zones

Soybeans grown in Africa have been selected to nodulate effectively with indigenous Bradyrhizobium spp. populations since Bradyrhizobium japonicum populations are considered absent or in very low numbers in African soils. The major objective of this study was to estimate total population of Bradyrhizobia specific to soybean in two agro-ecologically different study sites, Kiboko in Makueni District, Southeast Kenya (semi-arid to arid conditions) and Kaguru in Meru District, East Kenya (semi-humid climate) . The population of the indigenous rhizobia specific to soybeans was determined using the Most Probable Number (MPN) plant infection technique. In these experiments, the total Bradyrhizobia populations, the population sizes of taxonomically defined slow-growing Bradyrhizobia specific to soybean and the population sizes of Bradyrhizobia spp. specific to tropical Glycine Cross (TGx) varieties were determined for the two study sites. Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, cultivar Ken Kunde I was used to estimate the total Bradyrhizobia spp. population. Clark soybean, Glycine max, was used to estimate the population sizes of taxonomically defined slow-growing Bradyrhizobia spp. specific to soybean while a TGx genotype, SB12-TGx1869-31E was used to determine the population sizes of Bradyrhizobia spp. specific to TGx varieties. The results of the MPN counts indicated that the total Bradyrhizobia population in Kiboko was between 2.59x104 and 1.89x105. The population size of taxonomically defined slowgrowing Bradyrhizobia in Kiboko was between 2.59x102 and 1.89x103 cells per gram of soil sample while the approximate Bradyrhizobia population specific to TGx genotype was between 7.81x102 and 5.67x103 cells per gram of soil. In Kaguru, the approximate total Bradyrhizobia population was between 1.04x102 and 7.56x103 cells per gram of soil. The population size of taxonomically defined slow-growing Bradyrhizobia was between 1.33x102 and 9.72x102 cells per gram of soil while the approximate Bradyrhizobia population specific toTGx genotype was between 2.37x102 and 1.73x103 per gram of soil. These populations were adequate to give satisfactory results on nodulation and nitrogen fixation in the two study sites

Smallholder cropping systems contribute limited greenhouse gas fluxes in upper Eastern Kenya

The contribution of smallholder farming systems to the National greenhouse gas (GHG) budget is missing in most developing countries, including Kenya. Data on the contribution of smallholder cropping systems to the GHG balance is essential for realising Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action, i.e., on nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and in compliance with the Paris Agreement. Do smallholder farming systems act as nature-based solutions for greenhouse gas emissions reduction? This study evaluated GHG emissions from cropping systems under on-farm smallholder farming conditions. We had five cropping systems on two smallholder farms: sole maize, maize-bean intercrop, coffee, banana, and agroforestry. Gas samples were collected using three static chambers per cropping system. The gas samples were analysed using gas chromatography (GC) fitted with a 63Ni-electron capture detector (ECD) for N2O and flame ionisation detector (FID) for CH4 and CO2 using N as carrier gas. Cumulative annual fluxes of (CH4, N2O, and CO2) varied significantly in farms one and two across the cropping systems. The cumulative soil GHG fluxes ranged from -1.34kg CH4single bondC ha−1 yr−1 under agroforestry to -0.77kg CH4single bondC ha−1 yr−1 under banana for CH4, 0.30kg N2Osingle bondN ha−1 yr−1 to 1.23kg N2Osingle bondN ha−1 yr−1 for N2O and 5949kg CO2single bondC ha−1 yr−1 to 12,954kg CO2single bondC ha−1 yr−1 for CO2. The maize grain yields ranged from 0 to 3.38 Mg ha−1. The N2O yields scaled emissions ranged from 0.10 to 0.26g kg−1 maize and 0.68 to 1.30g kg−1 beans. Smallholder farmers in Upper Eastern Kenya contribute a limited amount of soil GHG emissions and thus could act as a nature-based solution for lowering agricultural emissions

Trends in Mean Annual Minimum and Maximum Near Surface Temperature in Nairobi City, Kenya

This paper examines the long-term urban modification of mean annual conditions of near surface temperature in Nairobi City. Data from four weather stations situated in Nairobi were collected from the Kenya Meteorological Department for the period from 1966 to 1999 inclusive. The data included mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures, and was first subjected to homogeneity test before analysis. Both linear regression and Mann-Kendall rank test were used to discern the mean annual trends. Results show that the change of temperature over the thirty-four years study period is higher for minimum temperature than maximum temperature. The warming trends began earlier and are more significant at the urban stations than is the case at the sub-urban stations, an indication of the spread of urbanisation from the built-up Central Business District (CBD) to the suburbs. The established significant warming trends in minimum temperature, which are likely to reach higher proportions in future, pose serious challenges on climate and urban planning of the city. In particular the effect of increased minimum temperature on human physiological comfort, building and urban design, wind circulation and air pollution needs to be incorporated in future urban planning programmes of the city

Temperature Cooling and Warming Rates in Three Different Built Environments within Nairobi City, Kenya

Urban canyon, urban park, and suburban surface air temperature data for hot-wet, hot-dry, cool-dry, and warm-wet periods in Nairobi city were analyzed to detect differences in the cooling and warming rates. Measurement of temperature for thirty continuous days was done at each of the three sites for each of the above periods. The cooling and warming rates were computed on an hourly basis beginning at 6.00 P.M., the approximate time of sunset. The results of the study showed that the largest cooling and warming rates were generally experienced during the hot-dry period while the lowest during the cool-dry period. Cooling and warming rates were also found to be the highest at the suburban site and the lowest at the urban canyon site. The differences in the conditions of the built environment at the three sites could explain the cause of the differential cooling and warming rates. The study recommends proper planning of the built environment to ameliorate the problem of excessive nocturnal heat loads within the built environment

Effectiveness of technological options for minimising production risks under variable climatic conditions in eastern Uganda

This study employed the Just and Pope stochastic production frontier to assess the effectiveness of farmer preferred technologies in reducing production risk related to climate variability in Eastern Uganda. Data for this study were obtained from 315 households, 9 focus group discussions and 23 key informants drawn from Mbale, Pallisa and Sironko districts. Results show that farmers employed a number of technologies/practices strategically in response to seasonal variations in climatic conditions. Most of the technologies showed significant positive impacts on mean yield, but had different risk-reducing effects on yield. Changing sowing dates and crop varieties, soil bunds, compost manure, cover crops, crop rotation and intercropping showed significant (P<0.05) risk-reducing effects on yield. However, their effects varied across agro-ecological zone, except soil bunds and compost manure whose use consistently exhibited both yield-increasing and risk-reducing effects across all the agro-ecologies. Farmer perceptions of technology effectiveness, to some extent, agreed with econometric evidence from this study. Study results have two implications: firstly, the need to develop and disseminate location specific adaptation technologies to reduce production risks, instead of blanket recommendations of similar adaptation measures across locations; and secondly, the need to focus not only on the technical aspects of technologies, but also the social dimensions such as perceptions of smallholder farmers of technology effectiveness, if adoption and retention of adaptation technologies is to be enhanced. Development and research organisations promoting adaptation options should involve farmers in technology evaluation so as to recommend the most feasible options given farmers’ situations and local perceptions