Social Media and the Decline of Truth

In media history, there exists a perpetual cycle in which humanity’s innovation of communication technology shapes world culture and political climate, eventually resulting in humanity’s delayed response to these changes. Using this framework, this paper addresses the recent innovations of the social media era and the spread of online communication in regards to their impact on behavioral conditioning, democracy, and generally how people process information. The discussion takes a nuanced stance between two popular ways of imagining social media’s effect on the world: arguing for both an oppressive, authoritarian reality, likened to Orwell’s 1984, and a senseless, over-stimulated one, likened to Huxley’s Brave New World. First, the paper addresses themes in human reasoning that have contributed to the success of social media as well as the ways social media exploits and reinforces certain aspects of human behavior. The discussion then turns to the politicization of social media and the ways society has used current media technology to shape political climates and additionally frame news, both internationally and domestically. Lastly, the paper addresses the deviance of social media platforms into problematic uses, including the empowerment of authoritarian regimes and the incitement of polarizing, extremist sentiments.Plan II Honors Progra

Cooperative intentions and their implications on reciprocal cooperation in Norway rats

Funding: This study was financially supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, grant number 31003A_156152, which was awarded to Michael Taborsky.One way to cooperate with others and avoid exploitation is reciprocal cooperation. Reciprocity is the selective helping of those who were cooperative before, which is commonly based on outcomes. Yet, outcomes may not reflect intentions, i.e., if an individual is unable but willing to help. Humans, including children, show such intention-based reciprocity. However, it is unclear whether other animals consider intentions in reciprocal settings. Here, I tested whether Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) reciprocate help based on intentions by manipulating the outcome while keeping the partner’s cooperative inten-tions the same. Subjects experienced a partner that was able to help by providing food via a movable platform. In another condition, the same partner was unable to help because the platform was blocked. When the roles were exchanged afterwards, subjects provided food more often to ‘able’ than ‘unable’ partners, even though the latter attempted to help. I compare these findings to data using ‘willing’ and ‘unwilling’ partners that were able to help. Again, rats based their cooperative behaviour on outcomes rather than the intention to help. This suggests that rats reciprocate primarily based on outcomes and seem to not consider cooperative intentions. Although, subjects provided consistently less food to partners that did not help, they provided them with some help. Potentially, rats use a cognitively less demanding strategy by helping defectors a bit to maintain cooperation. Thereby, cooperation might be resistant to situations in which an apparent defector was actually unable to help, but had cooperative intentions, and might be a good cooperation partner in the future.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Reciprocal cooperation - Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) as an example

The Swiss National Science Foundation provided funding (P2BEP3_175269).Many animals cooperate even with unrelated individuals in various contexts, like providing food or allogrooming others. One possibility to explain the evolution of such apparently altruistic behaviour is reciprocity. In reciprocal cooperative interactions, individuals help those partners that have been previously cooperative and therefore exchange favours. This conditional help follows rules like “I help you because you helped me.” These rules are often assumed to be so cognitively demanding that they may be limited to humans. In this chapter, I will shed light on the cognitive underpinnings of reciprocal cooperation by reviewing work on one of the yet best-studied animal in this research area, the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). Various studies have demonstrated that Norway rats reciprocally exchange different goods and services. They most likely form attitudes toward social partners that are based on the cooperation level of the last encounter, which they remember over long time spans. Cooperation decisions based on attitudes appear cognitively less complex than calculations of received and given favors. Thus, reciprocal cooperation based on this cognitive mechanism might be in fact more widespread among nonhuman animals than commonly believed.PostprintPeer reviewe

The social life of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus)

This work was supported by a grant of the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant number P2BEP3 175269).The Norway rat has important impacts on our life. They are amongst the most used research subjects, resulting in ground-breaking advances. At the same time, wild rats live in close association with us, leading to various adverse interactions. In face of this relevance, it is surprising how little is known about their natural behaviour. While recent laboratory studies revealed their complex social skills, little is known about their social behaviour in the wild. An integration of these different scientific approaches is crucial to understand their social life, which will enable us to design more valid research paradigms, develop more effective management strategies, and to provide better welfare standards. Hence, I first summarise the literature on their natural social behaviour. Second, I provide an overview of recent developments concerning their social cognition. Third, I illustrate why an integration of these areas would be beneficial to optimise our interactions with them.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Rats play tit-for-tat instead of integrating social experience over multiple interactions

Funding was provided by SNF-grant 31003A_156152 to M.T. and P2BEP3 175269 to M.K.S.Theoretical models of cooperation typically assume that agents use simple rules based on last encounters, such as “tit-for-tat”, to reciprocate help. In contrast, empiricists generally suppose that animals integrate multiple experiences over longer timespans. Here we compared these two alternative hypotheses by exposing Norway rats to partners that cooperated on three consecutive days but failed to cooperate on the fourth day, and to partners that did the exact opposite. In additional controls, focal rats experienced cooperating and defecting partners only once. In a bar-pulling setup, focal rats based their decision to provide partners with food on last encounters instead of overall cooperation levels. To check whether this might be due to a lack of memory capacity, we tested whether rats remember the outcome of encounters that had happened three days before. Cooperation was not diminished by the intermediate time interval. We conclude that rats reciprocate help mainly based on most recent encounters instead of integrating social experience over longer timespans.PostprintPeer reviewe

Efficacy of a Conservative Weight Loss Program in the Long-Term Management of Chronic Upper Airway Obstruction

Objective. Obesity is a significant contributor to oxygen demand and dynamic airway obstruction. The objective of the current study is to determine the long-term success of conservative measures directed toward weight reduction on airway management without respect to specific airway disease etiology. Methods. Patients with chronic airway obstruction secondary anatomic lesions or obstructive sleep apnea were recruited and followed prospectively. Demographics, initial and final weights, diagnosis, and followup information were recorded. Patients were referred to a registered dietician, provided counseling, and started on a weight-loss regimen. Outcome measures were change in body mass index (BMI) and rate of decannulation from weight loss alone. Results. Of fourteen patients, ten remained tracheostomy-dependent and four had high-grade lesions with the potential for improvement in oxygen demand and dynamic airway collapse with weight loss. The mean follow up period was 25 months. The mean change in BMI was an increase of 1.4 kg/m2 per patient. Conclusions. Conservative measures alone were not effective in achieving weight reduction in the population studied. This may be due to comorbid disease and poor compliance. The promise of decannulation was an insufficient independent motivator for weight loss in this study. Although the theoretical benefits of weight loss support its continued recommendation, the long-term success rate of conservative measures is low. More aggressive facilitated interventions including pharmacotherapy or bariatric surgery should be considered early in the course of treating airway disease complicated by obesity

Capuchins (Sapajus apella) and their aversion to inequity

Funding: Authors would like to acknowledge the financial support we received from the European Research Council (Synergy grant 609819 SOMICS provided to Josep Call) and the Swiss National Science Foundation (P2BEP3 175269 provided to Manon K. Schweinfurth).Humans have a strong sense of fairness and are usually averse to unequal treatment for the same action. Ever since Brosnan and de Waal showed a similar effect in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella), numerous studies using different experimental methods have been conducted to investigate whether animals show inequity aversion like humans do. Capuchin monkeys have become one of the best-studied animals in this area. Our first aim in this chapter was to synthesise the findings in this literature. We found that there is mixed evidence for inequity aversion in capuchin monkeys. Our second aim was to understand this variation by focusing on the following factors: the type of task used, the feeding regime outside the experiment and the monkeys’ social environment. To obtain data on some of these factors, as they are not always reported in published studies, we contacted researchers in the main laboratories conducting this work. We found that responses to inequity systematically varied as a function of the task demands and the feeding regime, but not the social environment. Tasks, in particular pulling tasks, that required participants to expend effort to get the food were more likely to detect evidence of inequity aversion. Moreover, monkeys with access to food before or after testing, were more likely to show inequity aversion than those whose access to food was temporarily restricted. We note that our survey is an explorative approach to investigate the variation in reports on inequity aversion in capuchin monkeys. We hope this chapter raises awareness of the complexity of the concept and generates new testable hypotheses, which might advance our understanding of the theoretical foundations of inequity aversion.PostprintPeer reviewe

OCT-Based Macular Structure-Function Correlation in Dependence on Birth Weight and Gestational Age : the Giessen Long-Term ROP Study

Abstract Purpose: To compare retinal layer thicknesses in preterm and term-born children using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and to correlate structure with retinal function. Methods: We performed SD-OCT single and volume scans in the foveal region of premature children aged 6 to 13 years without ROP (no-ROP, n = 100) and with spontaneously regressed ROP (sr-ROP, n = 50) documented with wide-angle digital imaging during routine screening for acute ROP, and 30 age-matched term-born children. Retinal layer segmentation and analysis was performed with custom-made software in single and volume-scans using an Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study grid-based method, and compared to light increment sensitivity (LIS) data obtained with a microperimeter at eccentricity points of 0°, 2.8°, and 8°, as previously described. Results: Overall, seven children had to be excluded due to poor image quality (n = 1 no-ROP; n = 2 sr-ROP; n = 4 term). Total retina, ganglion cell + inner plexiform layer (GCL+) and outer nuclear layer + external limiting membrane (ONL+) thickness at the foveal center in no-ROP and sr-ROP were significantly higher compared with term children. Gestational age (GA) and birth weight (BW) were inversely correlated with these layer thicknesses. Rod and cone outer segment length did not differ in either group. The ratio of ONL+ to the whole retina at 0° correlated significantly with reduced LIS. Conclusions: Increased thicknesses of the entire retina or specific layers at the fovea did not correlate with functional loss; but a thinner ONL in retinae without foveal pit did. This reduced ONL+ ratio is potentially caused by a reduced foveal cone density and may be the first morphologic functional correlate in prematurity and ROP

Current Endoscopic Treatment of Dysphonia

Benign laryngeal disorders result in dysphonia because of effects on glottic closure and the vibratory characteristics of the true vocal fold. Treatment is initially directed at reversing medical conditions and patterns of abuse with surgery reserved for unresolving lesions resulting in troublesome dysphonia. Benign lesions that require surgery are excised as precisely as possible sparing overlying mucosa and the underlying vocal ligament. Vocal fold scarring is currently best treated by augmentation procedures, and atrophy may be compensated for by medialization thyroplasty or by adding bulk to the affected folds. Application of current knowledge of laryngeal histology and physiology is prerequisite to endoscopic surgical intervention