Reciprocity or redistribution of resources? The dynamics of friendship, helping and perceived stress at work

In this paper, I examine the dynamics of friendship, helping and perceived work pressure among employees in different organizational contexts. What is the relative importance of perceived work pressure and the quality of existing relationships (friendship) on receiving and providing help? And to what extent does helping have an impact on perceived work stress for the recipient and for the helper? The theoretical framework combines relational and situational perspectives on helping. Existing research on interpersonal helping at work has typically taken a relational perspective. Social exchange theory is the dominant framework here. On the other hand, research on friendship norms suggests that helping is often an expected part of friendship relationships (i.e., based on a generalized reciprocity principle, rather than balanced reciprocity as suggested by social exchange theory). By contrast, experimental studies have adopted a situational perspective, focusing on recipients’ need for help and potential helpers’ ability to help, as well as considering the effectiveness of the help provided. Here, helping is considered a way of redistributing resources (such as time, knowledge, or equipment) from helpers to recipients. Drawing on both relational and situational perspectives, in this paper I develop and test competing hypotheses using stochastic actor-based modelling. Data on social networks (helping and friendship) and perceived work pressure come from two waves of employee surveys in seven small and medium-sized private and public sector organizations in Finland

Effects of job demands and social interactions on fatigue in short sea cargo shipping

Although fatigue is considered an important problem in shipping, little is known about potential mitigating factors or resources for coping. Adopting a Job Demands–Resources framework, this article examines the effects of both job demands (stressors) and resources on fatigue, focusing on social interactions on board as a potential source of social support. Using an incomplete repeated-measures design, the study combined information from documents with surveys on seven cargo ships. Findings indicated that fatigue levels were highest for those working on deck and for individuals at higher hierarchical levels. Higher numbers of port calls (and to some extent lower numbers of days at sea) also increased fatigue levels. By contrast, night watches and the number of days in port had no effect on fatigue. Supportive social interactions reduced fatigue (main effect), but their effect was weaker when the number of port calls increased (interaction effect). All main effects were mediated by individuals’ perceptions of work pressure. Taken together, findings highlight the importance of considering social interactions on board to advance our understanding of stressors and strain in seafaring

Exposure to workplace bullying and group dynamics: A social network analysis

Purpose The aim of this study was to analyze how employees’ position in the social network affects their exposure to bullying behaviours at work and how this exposure in turn affects group dynamics. Design/Methodology Longitudinal data on exposure to bullying behaviours (NAQ – short version) and network data on relationship quality (friendship relations; difficult relations) were collected in eight Finnish organizations. Hypotheses were tested based on two waves of data (n = 249) using stochastic actor-oriented modeling for the coevolution of networks and attributes, as implemented in RSiena. Results Contrary to expectations, the number of friends and the number of difficult relations (T1) had no effect on exposure to bullying behaviour (T2). However, respondents with higher exposure to bullying behaviours at T1 reported both more friendships and more difficult relations at T2, suggesting that on the group level bullying behaviour might lead to group polarization. Also, employees’ exposure to bullying behaviours was affected by the bullying behaviours experienced by their friends, pointing to contagion or social influence effects. Limitations RSiena does not allow taking into account the multilevel nature of the data. Research/Practical Implications The findings highlight the importance of taking into account group dynamics for understanding exposure to workplace bullying and its consequences. Originality/Value The study introduces a new methodological approach to workplace bullying research, making it possible to take into account dynamics of social networks and the interdependencies between the actors and their responses to workplace bullying

Justice obtained? How disabled claimants fare at employment tribunals

This article explores disability discrimination cases at British Employment Tribunals. Analysing over 750 judgments, it examines the characteristics of claimants and the factors associated with the failure of cases: restrictive judicial decisions, complex legal tests, inequality of arms between claimant and employer and the stigma attached to claimants with mental impairments, providing some evidence for a hierarchy of impairments

“The devil’s journey”: Cargo ships’ schedules, social relations and coping strategies

Affecting workload, daily routines and tasks, a ship’s schedule shapes life and work on board. Characteristics of ships’ schedule have also been associated with fatigue. Fatigue comes not only with high personal costs for seafarers with regard to health and well-being. It also contributes to errors and accidents at sea, with substantial financial implications for the shipping industry. The purpose of this study is to examine seafarers’ perceptions of the consequences of ships’ schedules, and their ways of coping with demanding schedules. Particular attention will be given to effects on fatigue, and the role of social relations. Data come from interviews and informal conversations with officers and crew on cargo ships engaged in short sea shipping, mainly in northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Whereas previous research has mostly focused on assessing the effects of selected stressors, the interviews provided a more nuanced understanding of how ships’ schedules and social interactions on board affected fatigue, and revealed the complex interrelations between ships’ schedules, institutional and organizational context, social interactions on board, and coping strategies. Further, the interviews suggested the importance of considering not only stressors, but also potential mitigating factors and resources for coping. Initial findings suggested that the ship’s schedule was not only an important stressor, but could also undermine the resources available for coping

Social networks and resilience in work teams

This chapter explores social networks and resilience in an organizational context, focusing on work teams and their strategies for preparing, managing and learning from adversities. To date, only few studies have considered social networks in relation to the resilience of individuals and teams in organizations. This chapter shows how a social network perspective contributes to our understanding of team resilience. Specifically, it proposes that for research on team resilience, social networks can be relevant in three ways: they provide resources, they offer a way of analyzing responses to adversity, and they are important outcomes. Organizational design and interventions play a key role for resilience by influencing team members' networks, as well as the resources and strategies available to them. Future studies should take a holistic approach to explore team processes in response to adversities over time, taking into account the multilevel context in which teams are embedded

Negative experiences and negative ties: An analysis of the interdynamics of perceived exposure to workplace bullying and positive and negative social relations at work

The aim of this study was to analyze how employees’ position in the social network affects their exposure to bullying behaviours, and how this exposure in turn affects their positive ties (“friendship”) and negative ties (“difficult” relations) at work. Thus, the study explores the interdynamics of perceptions of negative behaviours and negative and positive relationships. Longitudinal data on perceived exposure to bullying behaviours (NAQ – short version) and network data on relationship quality (friendship relations; difficult relations) were collected in eight small and medium-sized organizations in Finland. Hypotheses were tested based on two waves of data (n = 249) using stochastic actor-oriented modeling. Given the multilevel nature of the data (respondents nested in organizations), different approaches for analyzing the data were explored. Contrary to expectations, initial analyses suggest that neither degree centrality in the network of difficult relations, nor degree centrality in the friendship network at T1 had any effect on perceived exposure to bullying behaviours (T2). However, respondents who experienced higher exposure to bullying behaviours at T1 reported both more friendships (endowment effect) and more difficult relations (creation effect) at T2. This suggests that at the group level, bullying might contribute to group polarization. Also, employees’ exposure to bullying behaviours was affected by the bullying behaviours experienced by their friends, perhaps pointing to social influence effects

“Team play”: Seafarers' strategies for coping with job demands of short sea cargo shipping lines

Previous research has advanced our understanding of job demands in seafaring. However, little is known about the strategies that seafarers use for coping with these demands. Taking an inductive approach, this study identifies seafarers’ strategies for coping with the job demands of short sea cargo shipping lines, and explores the constraints and resources affecting the availability and effectiveness of these strategies. Data came from interviews with officers and crew on five cargo ships in Northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Extending previous research in the context of seafaring, the interviews document a broad set of coping strategies. This includes problem focused and emotion focused strategies, strategies aimed at protecting resources, and strategies aimed at changing external constraints. Thus, instead of remaining passive, the interviews suggest that seafarers seek to take an active role in managing job demands. In contrast to previous research on coping that focused on individual strategies, this study highlights the collective aspects of these strategies. A good working climate, characterized by good interpersonal relations and collaboration, provides the basis for many of these strategies, and thus forms a key resource for coping. Other important resources are crew members’ competence levels, and time to rest. Taken together, the study reveals complex interrelations between external constraints, job demands, resources, and coping strategies. Job demands not only act as stressors, but, together with external constraints (e.g., legislation; companies’ HR policies and practices), they also affect resources, and undermine the availability and effectiveness of coping strategies

‘Only work and sleep’: seafarers’ perceptions of job demands of short sea cargo shipping lines and their effects on work and life on board

Previous research on job demands in seafaring has focused on the effects of workload and circadian disturbance on seafarers’ health and fatigue. Taking a more comprehensive approach, this study identifies job demands of short sea cargo shipping lines and explores their effects on work and life on board. Data came from 54 interviews with officers and crew on five cargo ships. Findings revealed job demands related to characteristics of the schedule, ports, and sea voyages; these were not only associated with workload and circadian disturbance, but also with the difficulty of the work, the ability to plan ahead, and intrusions from third parties. Job demands affected outcomes through two interconnected processes. First, job demands had direct and indirect effects on fatigue and the working climate on board. Second, potential positive effects of job demands (i.e. interesting work and pay) were related to motivation and, together with a good working climate, could reduce turnover. Connecting the two processes, a good working climate was pivotal in counteracting negative emotions and supporting motivation and collaboration. In this way, it functioned as a key resource. External constraints could either buffer or reinforce these effects