Design and bioapplication of nanointerfaces based on conducting polymers

Premi Extraordinari de Doctorat, promoció 2014-2015. Àmbit d'Enginyeria IndustrialThis Thesis reports the fabrication and characterization of interfaces based on conducting polymers (CPs), which are designed with at least one dimension in the nanometric scale, for bioapplications such as scaffolds for promoting electro-active tissue regeneration, drug delivery systems or passive ion transport membranes. In particular, the development of such platforms is addressed to overcome CPs limitations without compromising their electrochemical and electrical properties. Special attention is placed on evaluating those properties that are known to determine cell-biointerface interactions (i.e. surface chemistry, topology and mechanical features) in addition to biocompatibility and biodegradability. Concretely, CP-based biointerfaces are designed as ultra-thin free-standing nanomembranes (FsNM), fibrous substrates or electropolymerized interfaces. In the first approach, spin-coating is used to prepare robust and flexible nanofilms by blending a chemically synthesized PTh derivative (P3TMA), which is soluble in THF, CHCl3 and DMSO, with an insulating polymer (i.e. polyester (PE44) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)), which is crucial to provide mechanical integrity to P3TMA. Fully characterization of the resulting FsNM reveals that both systems, P3TMA:PE44 and TPU:P3TMA interfaces, retain features coming from each of the homopolymers: electrochemical activity and electrical response on the one hand, and biodegradability on the other. Moreover, they behave as potent cellular biointerfaces because they are biocompatible, electrobioactive and adequate substrates for type I collagen adsorption. Secondly, P3TMA is further used to obtain hybrid fibrous scaffolds. In this case, polylactic acid (PLA) and a poly-urea derivative (PEU-co-PEA) are chosen as biodegradable polymers. After the optimization of the electrospinning process, a study is carried out to investigate the electrochemical properties (electroactivity and electrostability) of both PLA:P3TMAand PEU-co-PEA:P3TMA hybrid samples, and their bioapplication. P3TMA displays a good doping level, and retains its electrochemical features in the hybrid fibrous samples, which are electroactive and electrostable. Again, P3TMA improves the cellular proliferation of cells cultured on the hybrid fibrous interfaces, thus enabling their use as suitable scaffolds for cell regeneration. Furthermore, PLA:P3TMA 2:1 fibrous interface can perform as a drug-delivery platform since it combines suitable wetting behaviour, biocompatibility and good electrical features. Drug-loaded matrices with TCS, CHX or CIP are antibacterial active, and thus the drug is feasible to be released from the fibrous biointerface by electrical stimulation. Finally, CP-based biointerfaces are prepared by electrochemical polymerization adopting specific strategies. Hence, Omp2a, an outer membrane protein which forms trimeric pores, is entrapped in a poly(N-methylpyrrole) (PNMPy) matrix, preserving its native structure, which ensures its operative and functional state as passive ion channel. Similarly, a bioactive platform is prepared based on the co-electropolymerization of a specially synthesized bis-thienyl monomer, AzbT, which contains carboxyl and Schiff base functionalities, and 2,2':5',2''-therthiophene (Th3). Such interfaces display good optical and electrochemical properties depending on the AzbT:Th3 molar ratio in the electrpolymerization medium. Furthermore, the copolymer with the highest AzbT content shows enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation results, with cells cultured on their surface homogeneously spread. Such behaviour has been interpreted as the combination effect of the minor release of harmful Th3 monomer entrapped into the polymeric matrix and the presence of the AzbT's distinctive groups.Esta Tesis reporta la fabricación y caracterización de nanointerfaces compuestas por polímeros conductores (CPs) diseñadas para bioaplicaciones. En particular, el desarrollo de dichas plataformas pretende superar las limitaciones de los CPs sin comprometer sus propiedades electroquímicas y eléctricas. Se ha prestado especial atención en evaluar aquellas características que influyen en las interacciones establecidas entre la biointerfaz y sistemas celulares (i.e. propiedades superficiales, morfológicas y mecánicas), además de determinar su biocompatiblidad y biodegradabilidad. Concretamente, las biointerfaces se han diseñado como nanomembranas, sustratos fibrilares o interfaces obtenidas medicante electropolimerización.La primera estrategia emplea la técnica del spin-coating para preparar nanomembranes free-standing (FsNM) flexibles y robustas combinando un derivado de politiofeno sintetizado químicamente (P3TMA), soluble en THF, CHCl3 y DMSO, con un biopolímero convencional (i.e. polyester (PE44) o poliuretano (TPU)). La presencia del polímero aislante es crucial para dotar al CP de integridad mecánica. La caracterización de las FsNM revela que ambos sistemas (P3TMA:PE44 o TPU:P3TMA) retienen las características distintivas de los homopolímeros: actividad electroquímica y eléctrica por un lado, y biodegradabilidad por el otro. Además, muestran elevada biocompatibilidad, electrobioactividad y adecuada respuesta a la adsorción de colágeno tipo I.A continuación, el P3TMA se utiliza para obtener scaffolds fibrilares híbridos combinándolo con poliláctico (PLA) o un derivado de la poliurea. Tras la optimización de los parámetros de síntesis de las fibras (electrospinning), las propiedades electroquímicas (electroactividad y electroestabilidad) de los dos sistemas (PLA:P3TMA y PEU-co-PEA:P3TMA) y su bioaplicación han sido estudiadas. El P3TMA presenta un buen nivel de dopaje, y mantiene una buena respuesta electroquímica (es electroactivo y electroestable) en los sistemas híbridos. De nuevo, la presencia del CP mejora la proliferación celular, lo que permite usar estas biointerfaces como soporte para el crecimiento celular. Asimismo, el sistema PLA:P3TMA puede actuar como plataforma de liberación de medicamentos ya que combina biocompatiblidad, buenas características eléctricas y una apropiada humectabilidad. Las matrices cargadas con medicamentos bactericidas (TCS, CHX o CIP) son activas, y por lo tanto resultarían interfaces adecuadas para la liberación controlada de fármacos mediante estimulación eléctrica. Finalmente, varios sistemas basados en CP han sido diseñados mediante polimerización electroquímica adoptando estrategias concretas para mejorar su aplicación biotecnológica. En primer lugar, Omp2a, una proteína de membrana que forma poros triméricos, se ha inmovilizado en una matriz de poli(N-metilpirrol) (PNMPy). Este método preserva su estructura nativa y asegura su estado operativo y funcional como canal iónico pasivo. De manera similar, una segunda plataforma bioactiva se ha desarrollado mediante la copolimerización de un mónomero que contiene funcionalidades específicas (carboxilos y bases de Schiff) con 2,2’:5’,2’’-therthiophene (Th3). Dichas interfaces presentan buenas propiedades ópticas y electroquímicas en función de la ratio molar de AzbT:Th3 en el medio de polimerización. También, la mejor respuesta de adhesión y proliferación celular se obtiene para el copolímero con el mayor contenido de AzbT, interfaz sobre la cual las células de distribuyen de manera homogénea y completamente estiradas. Dicho comportamiento se ha interpretado como resultado del efecto combinado de (i) una menor liberación del monómero tóxico Th3 de la matriz P(AzbT:Th3) y (ii) una mayor presencia de los grupos distintivos del AzbT.Palabras clave: polímero conductor, compuesto biodegradable, scaffold fibrilar, ingeniería de tejidos, sistemas de liberación de fármacos, biointerfaces funcionales, polimerización electroquímica.Award-winningPostprint (published version

Porous Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-Based Electrodesfor Detecting Stress Biomarkers in Artificial Urine and Sweat

When danger is perceived, the human body responds to overcome obstacles and survive a stressful situation; however, sustained levels of stress are associated with health disorders and diminished life quality. Hence, stress biomarkers are monitored to control stress quantitatively. Herein, a porous sensor (4l-COP/p) composed of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene-co-N-methylpyrrole) (COP), which is prepared in a four-layered fashion to detect dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT), is presented. Specifically, the detection is conducted in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), as well as artificial urine and sweat, by applying cyclic voltammetry. The limit of detection values obtained are as low as 5.7 × 10−6 and 1.4 × 10−6 m for DA and 5-HT, respectively, when assessed individually in artificial urine. When mixed in PBS, 4l-COP/p detects both biomarkers with a resolution of 0.18 V and a sensitivity of 40 and 30 μA mm−1 for DA and 5-HT, respectively. Additionally, by theoretical calculations, the interaction pattern that each stress biomarker establishes with the PEDOT outer layer is elucidated. Whereas DA interacts with the ������-system of PEDOT, 5-HT forms specific hydrogen bonds with the conducting polymer chains. The resolution value obtained depends upon such interactions. Overall, 4l-COP/p electrodes display potential as stress sensing devices for healthcare technologies.Authors acknowledge MINECO/FEDER (RTI2018-098951-B-I00), the Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (2017SGR359). M.M.P.-M. thanks the Spanish Ministry of Educación y Formación Profesional for the Junior Beatriz Galindo Award (BG20/00216)

Controlling the size of two-dimensional polymer platelets for water-in-water emulsifiers

A wide range of biorelevant applications, partic- ularly in pharmaceutical formulations and the food and cosmetic industries, require the stabilization of two water-soluble blended components which would otherwise form incompatible biphasic mixtures. Such water-in-water emulsions can be achieved using Pickering stabilization, where two-dimensional (2D) nanomateri- als are particularly effective due to their high surface area. However, control over the shape and size of the 2D nanomaterials is challenging, where it has not yet been possible to examine chemically identical nanostructures with the same thickness but different surface areas to probe the size-effect on emulsion stabilization ability. Hence, the rationale design and realization of the full potential of Pickering water-in-water emulsion stabilization have not yet been achieved. Herein, we report for the first time 2D poly(lactide) platelets with tunable sizes (with varying coronal chemistry) and of uniform shape using a crystallization-driven self-assembly methodology. We have used this series of nanostructures to explore the effect of 2D platelet size and chemistry on the stabilization of a water-in-water emulsion of a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)/dextran mixture. We have demonstrated that cationic, zwitterionic, and neutral large platelets (ca. 3.7 × 10 6 nm 2 ) all attain smaller droplet sizes and more stable emulsions than their respective smaller platelets (ca. 1.2 × 105 nm 2 ). This series of 2D platelets of controlled dimensions provides an excellent exemplar system for the investigation of the effect of just the surface area on the potential effectiveness in a particular applicationPostprint (published version

Nanotechnology for detection of biomolecules and fabrication of bioactives platforms

Postprint (published version

DNA-catalyzed Henry Reaction in Pure Water and the Striking Influence of Organic Buffer Systems

In this manuscript we report a critical evaluation of the ability of natural DNA to mediate the nitroaldol (Henry) reaction at physiological temperature in pure water. Under these conditions, no background reaction took place (i.e., control experiment without DNA). Both heteroaromatic aldehydes (e.g., 2-pyridinecarboxaldehyde) and aromatic aldehydes bearing strong or moderate electron-withdrawing groups reacted satisfactorily with nitromethane obeying first order kinetics and affording the corresponding β-nitroalcohols in good yields within 24 h. In contrast, aliphatic aldehydes and aromatic aldehydes having electron-donating groups either did not react or were poorly converted. Moreover, we discovered that a number of metal-free organic buffers efficiently promote the Henry reaction when they were used as reaction media without adding external catalysts. This constitutes an important observation because the influence of organic buffers in chemical processes has been traditionally underestimated

Biodegradable nanofibrous scaffolds as smart delivery vehicles for amino acids

The encapsulation of amino acids (AAs) and their correct preservation before they are ingested are challenging tasks. Nonpolar (l-alanine and l-phenylalanine), polar (l-cysteine hydrochloride and l-asparagine), and charged (l-lysine hydrochloride and l-aspartic acid) AAs were loaded into biodegradable and nontoxic poly(tetramethylene succinate) (PE44) nanofibers (NFs) with electrospinning. The loading of AAs considerably affected the morphology, topography, thermal properties, and wettability of the PE44 NFs. Furthermore, although the AAs crystallized in a phase separated from the polymeric matrix, the distribution of such crystals changed into PE44 NFs and depended on their chemical nature. Release assays in enzyme-free solutions provided evidence that very significant amounts of AAs were retained in the NFs after 7 days, whereas assays in the lipase-containing solution (because lipase performs essential roles in the digestion) showed almost complete release after a few hours. Lipase preferentially attacked the PE44 regions responsible for the retention of AAs in the biphasic system and favored the almost immediate release of the biomolecules. The results displayed in this study, combined with the biocompatibility, biodegradability, and potential use of the PE44 NFs as edible nonnutritional elements, suggest that the loaded PE44–AA NFs could be used to supply essential and conditional AAs.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Electrochemical activation for sensing of three-dimensional-printed poly(lactic acid) using low-pressure plasma

Integrated electrochemical sensors in which plasma-treated poly(lactic acid) (PLA) single material acts as both selective coating layer and electrochemical transductor (electrode) are prepared. Thus, three-dimensional-printed PLA specimens are transformed into electroresponsive material by applying a low-pressure gas plasma treatment with three different gases: N2, O2, and air (79% N2¿+¿21% O2). Although all treated samples are able to electrochemically detect dopamine, the one derived from the treatment of low-pressure O2 plasma exhibits the best performance as a sensor. Finally, cell adhesion assays demonstrate that the cell viability is higher for plasma-treated PLA modified than for pristine PLA, making the former a promising, versatile, and powerful electroresponsive platform for diverse applications in biomedicine.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Electroactive and bioactive films of random copolymers containing terthiophene, carboxyl and Schiff base functionalities in the main chain

A new bis-thienyl type monomer with preformed azomethine linkages (AzbT) was chemically synthesized and, subsequently, electro-copolymerized with 2,2' : 5', 2 ''-terthiophene (Th-3). AzbT : Th-3 mixtures with different molar ratios (i.e. 50 : 50, 60 : 40 and 80 : 20) were considered, the resulting thin films being made of random insoluble copolymers, P(AzbT-co-Th-3)s. The content of AzbT in P(AzbT-co-Th-3) s was found to increase with the AzbT : Th-3 molar ratio in the electropolymerization medium. Furthermore, characterization of the different copolymers suggests the existence of several concomitant processes in the reaction medium. Thus, depending on the composition of the reaction medium, AzbT worked as a co-monomer and/or as a dopant for the growing polymer chains. The morphology of the films evolved from a porous multi-level surface to a more compact and flat globular structure with increasing AzbT content. On the other hand, the electrochemical and optical properties were also influenced by the AzbT : Th-3 ratio. Cytotoxicity and cell adhesion and proliferation tests, which were performed using human osteosarcoma and monkey kidney epithelial cell lines (MG-63 and Vero, respectively), revealed that P(AzbT-co-Th-3) matrices can be potentially applied as bioactive substrates. This behaviour was especially relevant for the 80 : 20 copolymer, which exhibits optical and electrochemical properties in the range of polythiophene derivatives, suggesting that it is a promising functional biomaterial.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author’s final draft

Digital light processing-3D printing of thermoset materials with high biodegradability from amino acid-derived acrylamide monomers

Six acrylamide resins, derived from l-phenylalanine and l-leucine, are designed for application in digital light processing (DLP) printers to obtain biodegradable thermoset polymers. The acrylamide copolymers are prepared under light irradiation at 405 nm and thermal post-curing processes. Low molecular weight poly(ethylene glycol)diacrylate (PEGDA) and N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMAM), both liquid resins, are used as co-monomers and diluents for the amino acid-derived acrylamide solubilization. The presence of two phenylalanine units and two ester groups in the acrylamide monomer accuses a fast degradation rate in hydrolytic medium in 90 days. The residual products leached in the aqueous media prove to be non-cytotoxic, when 3D-printed samples are cultured with osteoblast cells (MG63), which represents an advantage for the safe disposal of printer waste materials. The scaled-up pieces derived from l-phenylalanine and diethylene glycol, as amino acid-derived acrylamide (named compound C), PEGDA and DMAM, present high dimensional stability after DLP printing of complex structures used as testing samples. Layers of 50 µm of thickness are well cohesive having isotropic behavior, as demonstrated with tensile-strain measurements performed in X–Y–Z (plane) directions. The compound C, which contains phenylalanine amino acid, reveals a promising potential to replace non-biodegradable acrylate polymers used in prototyping systems.Postprint (author's final draft