History, Culture and Orature: A Study of Shimoni Slave Caves

Shimoni slave caves in Kenya are a significant historical site reminiscent of the history of slave trade on the East African coast. A people’s Orature always embodies their philosophical world view, their religious orientation while at the same time recording moments in and aspects of their history. In this regard, the study investigated whether the community around Shimoni reconstructed the traumatic experience of slave trade through their Orature. The objective of the study was to examine how the people’s philosophy of life is reflected through their oral narratives in their attempt to reconstruct their history. The data for the study was collected through face to face interviews with the informants. Participant observation was employed to enable the researcher to interact freely with the oral literature material. Purposive sampling and snowballing were used to identify the informants. The narratives collected were analyzed to establish the morals transmitted through them and their implication for the community. The functionalist theory was instrumental for the analysis of the function of the narratives. The findings reveal that the narratives of the community not only reconstruct the history of slave trade but also reflect the philosophical world view of the community. They show that the community believes in divine intervention, unity among its members and sanctity of life. Bad deeds were punished as a way of ensuring conformity. Keywords: Shimoni, Slave caves, History, Philosophy, Culture, Oral narrative

The Place of Identity and Hybridity on Literary Commitment in Bessie Head’s When Rain Clouds Gather

The current study examines the influence of identity on literary commitment in Bessie Head’s When rain clouds gather. In particular, the study is interested in the hybrid syncretic crossings reflected in the text and which define her commitment as a writer in the Third Space – a dimension that has so far been overlooked by critics of her literary works. The study adopts the analytical research design. The postcolonial theory is instrumental in the reading, analysis and interpretation of the selected text. The data collected through content analysis of the text is coded according to thematic concerns, the mode of characterization and the vision of the author. The findings reveal that Head’s identity influences her commitment in her choice of characters that like herself, are cast in the in-between space. These characters shuttle between points of inclusion and exclusion. Within this in-between or Third Space, identities defy fixity thereby remaining fickle, fluid and unstable. People are thus cast in a perpetual process of becoming, always mutating or changing into something ‘other’. Essentialist formulations of identity are undermined by defiance of territorial confinement which allows for cultural fusion, but in the process also results in fission or more precisely, a shift from essentialist perceptions of self image. Hybridity, on the other hand, emerges as the coexistence of differences. In such cases, differences meet, mix and tolerate one another. However, it does not imply total erasure of cultural differences; its only impact is to blur the boundaries. Despite this, hybridity is propped by the author as the recipe for a perfect society. DOI: 10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n3p6

Evaluating evapotranspiration Values in Rwanda while Using the Turc and Hargreaves-Samani Equations.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is an important component of the hydrologic cycle and involves the exchange of water between the surrounding water bodies, soil, crop surfaces, and the atmosphere. Crop growth and yields are largely affected by the rate of ET, especially in semi-arid areas where the rate of ET is high and rainfall is not sufficient and reliable to add more water into the soil for crop use. Solar radiation, relative humidity, air temperature, rainfall, and wind velocity are some of the meteorological factors that affect ET. Therefore, this research was aimed at determining ET and its trend across Rwanda using climatic data measured at 5 sites. With the research, we accessed meteorology data measured at synaptic stations in the five provinces of Rwanda (Kigali city/central, Kawangire/Eastern, Ruberengera/Western, Ruhengeri/Northern and Gikongoro/ and used the data to calculate reference evapotranspiration (ET) for the recent 10 years (2010-2018). Equations were used to calculate extra-terrestrial radiations, solar radiations, evapotranspiration using the FAO-56 guidelines - Turc method (1961) and Hargreaves-Samani (HS) method (1983). The obtained data was analyzed using the two methods and graph were plotted for visualization. Both methods have performed well in semi-humid and semi-arid environmental conditions. The average monthly reference evapotranspiration for both equations ranges from 3 to 5 mm/day. The Hu-Ts graphs for all the five locations shows a low value of reference ET (3 to 4 mm/day) for the year of 2018 compared to the previous years. Generally, there was consistency in variation in the reference ET throughout the 10 years for both the equations. The Turc method underestimates reference ET value compared to the HS method. The difference and variation of reference crop evapotranspiration for both the equations might have been due to the different locations since they have variations in climatic conditions that contributes a lot to the evapotranspiration value in the region

Effects of Unionization on Sugar Cane Farmers’ Income in Bukembe Zone, Bungoma County

Agriculture is the backbone of the Kenyan economy and the sugarcane production is a key subsector in the agricultural sector which employs over half- a million people in Kenya. While sugarcane farming was meant to be a source of income and wealth creation to the people of Western Kenya, the outcome have been worrying as many farmers remain impoverished while the sugarcane factories face a mirage of challenges and   has been in constant crisis. The role of financial capital as a factor of production to facilitate economic growth and development as well as the need to appropriately channel credit to rural areas for economic development of the poor rural farmers cannot be over emphasized. Credit (capital) is viewed as more than just another resource such as labour, land, equipment and raw materials but also determines access to all of the resources on which farmers depend.  The purpose of the study was to analyse effect of unionization on sugarcane farmers’ in income in Bukembe Zone, Bungoma County.  The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. The target population of the study was 384 sugarcane farmers. The sample population was 50 farmers. Data collection was done by means of semi-structured questionnaires, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis was done through content analysis and descriptive statistics respectively. Frequency tables and charts were used to present the findings. The study results indicated there was a significant relationship between unionization and farmers’ income (p=0.000); there was a significant relationship between farmers’  characteristics and farmers’ income (p=0.002);there was a significant relationship between company related factors and farmers’ income (p=0.000) and that there was a significant relationship between environmental related factors and farmers’ income (p=0.001). The study concluded that famers’ income is determined by unionization, farmers’ characteristics, related company characteristics and environmental related factors. The study recommended that sugar companies’ policies should be aligned with sugarcane farmers’ needs in order to gain sugarcane farmers trust and that farmers should research on various environmental factors that affect growth of sugarcane and seek experts’ solutions. Keywords: Farmers’ Income, Unionisation

Challenges to generating political prioritization for adolescent sexual and reproductive health in Kenya: A qualitative study.

BackgroundDespite the high burden of adverse adolescent sexual and reproductive health (SRH) outcomes, it has remained a low political priority in Kenya. We examined factors that have shaped the lack of current political prioritization of adolescent SRH service provision.MethodsWe used the Shiffman and Smith policy framework consisting of four categories-actor power, ideas, political contexts, and issue characteristics-to analyse factors that have shaped political prioritization of adolescent SRH. We undertook semi-structured interviews with 14 members of adolescent SRH networks between February and April 2019 at the national level and conducted thematic analysis of the interviews.FindingsSeveral factors hinder the attainment of political priority for adolescent SRH in Kenya. On actor power, the adolescent SRH community was diverse and united in adoption of international norms and policies, but lacked policy entrepreneurs to provide strong leadership, and policy windows were often missed. Regarding ideas, community members lacked consensus on a cohesive public positioning of the problem. On issue characteristics, the perception of adolescents as lacking political power made politicians reluctant to act on the existing data on the severity of adolescent SRH. There was also a lack of consensus on the nature of interventions to be implemented. Pertaining to political contexts, sectoral funding by donors and government treasury brought about tension within the different government ministries resulting in siloed approaches, lack of coordination and overall inefficiency. However, the SRH community has several strengths that augur well for future political support. These include the diverse multi-sectoral background of its members, commitment to improving adolescent SRH, and the potential to link with other health priorities such as maternal health and HIV/AIDS.ConclusionIn order to increase political attention to adolescent SRH in Kenya, there is an urgent need for policy actors to: 1) create a more cohesive community of advocates across sectors, 2) develop a clearer public positioning of adolescent SRH, 3) agree on a set of precise approaches that will resonate with the political system, and 4) identify and nurture policy entrepreneurs to facilitate the coupling of adolescent SRH with potential solutions when windows of opportunity arise

Dairy value chains in East Africa: Why so few women?

Peer Revie

Teachers’ Experiences With Online Teaching During COVID-19 in Kenya and Namibia

During the COVID-19 pandemic across sub-saharan Africa, the sudden closure of schools has interrupted and brought physical learning to a standstill. The rapid transition to emergency remote teaching posed many challenges and required innovative approaches to ensure continuity of teaching through information technology tools in Kenya and Namibia. Online Collaborative Learning (OCL) theory supports an effective teaching strategy for teachers to adopt appropriate technologies and clear educational goals, develop clear instructions for influencing students’ online behavior, prepare and orientate students adequately, and select pertinent discussion topics. The study used a cross-sectional survey of secondary school teachers in both countries. The results show that teachers continued to provide education during the pandemic without proper guidance from the school leadership. Teachers had no knowledge and support in developing appropriate online content, motivating students, and delivering quality teaching. Also, the results show no evidence-based online collaborative learning amongst teachers and/or schools. Similarly, schools lacked knowledge practices and digital resources, especially those in rural settings. The study recommends the improvement of continuing professional development in the respective countries covering aspects of the school vision, leadership, practices of the teaching community, pedagogical approaches, school-level knowledge practices, and increased digital resources

Evaluation of person-centered interventions to eliminate perinatal HIV transmission in Kisumu County, Kenya: A repeated cross-sectional study using aggregated registry data

BackgroundFollowing a decline in perinatal HIV transmission from 20% to 10% between 2010 and 2017 in Kenya, rates have since plateaued with an estimated 8% transmission rate in 2021. Between October 2016 and September 2021, Family AIDS Care & Education Services (FACES) supported HIV care and treatment services across 61 facilities in Kisumu County, Kenya with an emphasis on service strengthening for pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV to reduce perinatal HIV transmission. This included rigorous implementation of national HIV guidelines and implementation of 3 locally adapted evidence-based interventions targeted to the unique needs of women and their infants. We examined whether these person-centered program enhancements were associated with changes in perinatal HIV transmission at FACES-supported sites over time.Methods and findingsWe conducted a repeated cross-sectional study of annually aggregated routinely collected documentation of perinatal HIV transmission risk through the end of breastfeeding at FACES-supported facilities between October 2016 and September 2021. Data included 12,599 women living with HIV with baseline antenatal care metrics, and, a separate data set of 11,879 mother-infant pairs who were followed from birth through the end of breastfeeding (overlapping with those in antenatal care 2 years prior). FACES implemented 3 interventions for pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV in 2019: (1) high-risk clinics; (2) case management; and (3) a mobile app to support treatment engagement. Our primary outcome was infant HIV acquisition by the end of breastfeeding (18 to 24 months). We compared infant HIV acquisition risk in the final year of the FACES program (2021) to the year before intervention scale-up and following implementation of the "Treat All" policy (2018). Mother-infant pair loss to follow-up was a secondary outcome. Program data were aggregated by year and site, thus in multivariable regression, we adjusted for site-level characteristics, including facility type, urban versus rural, number of women with HIV in antenatal care each year, and the proportion among them under 25 years of age. Between October 2016 and September 2021, 81,172 pregnant women received HIV testing at the initiation of antenatal care, among whom 12,599 (15.5%) were living with HIV, with little variation in HIV prevalence over time. The risk of infant HIV acquisition by 24 months of age declined from 4.9% (101/2,072) in 2018 to 2.2% (48/2,156) in 2021 (adjusted risk difference -2.6% [95% confidence interval (CI): -3.7, -1.6]; p < 0.001). Loss to follow-up declined from 9.9% (253/2,556) in 2018 to 2.5% (59/2,393) in 2021 (risk difference -7.5% [95% CI: -8.8, -6.2]; p < 0.001). During the same period, UNAIDS estimated rates of perinatal transmission in the broader Nyanza region and in Kenya as a whole did not decline. The main limitation of this study is that we lacked a comparable control group.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that implementation of person-centered interventions was associated with significant declines in perinatal HIV transmission and loss to follow-up of pregnant and postpartum women

Perceptions and Experiences of School Teachers During the Implementation of a School-Based Deworming Activity in Kenya

Background: Primary school teachers are key stakeholders in the success of school-based deworming activity as they are responsible for drug administration and provision of health education to the School-Age Children (SAC). In Kenya, the National School-Based Deworming Programme (NSBDP) for control of soil-transmitted helminths and schistosomiasis was initiated in the year 2012 in prioritised areas. By the year 2013, over 6 million SAC had been treated. The present study sought to assess the teachers’ perceptions and experiences of the school-based deworming activity in an effort to improve programme effectiveness.   Methods: Qualitative data were collected, using in-depth interviews, in 4 subcounties of the coastal region of Kenya. Using purposive selection, 1 primary school teacher from each of the 38 schools also purposively selected participated in the study. The data were audio-recorded, transcribed, coded and analysed manually by study themes which included: reason for being selected for training to administer drugs; perceptions of training content and duration; experiences during drug acquisition, administration and record-keeping and motivation to continue participating in the deworming of school-age children.   Results: Half of the teachers indicated that they were selected to administer drugs to children as they were responsible for school health matters. The duration and content of the training were considered sufficient, and no challenges were faced during drug acquisition. Challenges faced during drug administration included non-compliance and experience of side effects of the drugs. No major problems were experienced in record-keeping, although the teachers felt that the forms needed to be simplified. Improvement of the children’s health and class performance was reported as a source of motivation to the teachers to continue administering the drugs. Fellow teachers were reported to have given moral support while over half of the respondents indicated that parents did not provide much support.   Conclusion: Generally, teachers have positive experiences and perceptions of the deworming activity. There is, however, a need to involve all stakeholders especially the parents through the school board of management to help counter non-compliance and possibly support in providing meals to the children to help minimise side effects after drug consumption. Inadequate moral support and incentives are negative factors on the teachers’ motivation