Motivação dos professores para trabalhar na era dos incentivos extrínsecos extrínsecos: Metas de desempenho e compromissos pró-sociais ao serviço da equidade

Mindful of the withering of high-stakes accountability and disappointing data from pay for performance evaluations in the US, we ask why management by extrinsic incentives and organizational goal setting may have been far less powerful than designers of accountability and extrinsic incentive systems had expected. We explore how system-generated motives (e.g., attaining specific organizational goals, preventing sanctions, or garnering rewards) stack up against autonomously generated, intrinsic, or service motives.? We found through both quantitative and qualitative data that for teachers in the charter schools a constellation of public service motives pre-dominated: diffuse pro-social commitments, ideologies of fairness and equity, a belief in the moral deservingness of deprived student populations in opposition to societal neglect, and identification with one’s work as a personal calling. By comparison, monetary rewards were embraced as already deserved. Neither rewards, nor accountability, seemed to regulate behavior in a deep way. Prestige was not bestowed by official performance statuses within the accountability system, but flowed from judgments, personally communicated, by students, parents, or colleagues who had direct contact with teachers’ work.Conscientes de la decadencia de la rendición de cuentas y de la decepcionante evidencia de las evaluaciones de los sistemas de pago por desempeño en los EE.UU., nos preguntamos por qué la gestión mediante incentivos extrínsecos y por fijación de objetivos organizacionales ha sido menos poderosa de lo que los diseñadores habían esperado. Exploramos la forma en que los motivos generados por el sistema (e.g., alcanzar objetivos organizacionales específicos, prevenir sanciones u obtener recompensas) se acumulaban en contra de motivos generados de forma autónoma, intrínseca o de servicio. Usando datos cuantitativos y cualitativos, encontramos que para los maestros predominaba una constelación de motivos de servicio público: compromisos pro-sociales, ideologías de justicia y equidad, creencia en la dignidad moral de los estudiantes desfavorecidos y una tendencia a la identificación con el trabajo propio como un “llamado” personal. En comparación, las recompensas monetarias fueron aceptadas como si los maestros ya las merecieran y ni las recompensas ni la rendición de cuentas parecían regular el comportamiento de forma profunda. El prestigio no fue derivado del desempeño formal dentro del sistema de incentivos, sino que fluyó del juicio comunicado por estudiantes, padres o colegas que tuvieron contacto directo con el trabajo de los docentes.Ciente do declínio da prestação de contas e as provas decepcionante das avaliações dos sistemas de pagamento de desempenho nos EUA, nos perguntamos por que a gestão por incentivos extrínsecos e definir objetivos organizacionais tem sido menos potente o que os designers tinham antecipado. Nós explorar como os motivos gerados pelo sistema (por exemplo, alcançar os objetivos organizacionais específicos, evitar sanções ou obter recompensas) empilhadas contra razões autonomamente gerados, intrínseca ou serviço. Usando dados quantitativos e qualitativos, descobrimos que para os professores dominadas por uma constelação de razões de serviço público: compromissos pró-sociais, ideologias de justiça e equidade, crença na dignidade moral de estudantes desfavorecidos e uma tendência a identificação com o trabalho como uma "chamada de" pessoal. Em comparação, as recompensas monetárias foram aceitos como se os professores e recompensas merecidas e nem responsabilidade nem regular o comportamento parecia profundamente. O prestígio foi derivada há incentivos de desempenho formais dentro do sistema, mas fluiu a partir da declaração por alunos, pais ou colegas que tiveram contato direto com o julgamento trabalho dos professores

Concepts of organizational and design-based school development in the US-American context

Der vorliegende Beitrag diskutiert Potenziale und Begrenzungen von verschiedenen Formen der Schulentwicklung in den USA mit dem Ziel, den Stellenwert einer design-basierten Form der Schulentwicklung zu verorten. Diese wird mit der Dynamik von strategischer Planung, von Implementierung extern entwickelter Programme und von Rechenschaftssystemen kontrastiert. Die Frage stellt sich: Kann man sich eine Form der Schulentwicklung vorstellen, die über die schwachen Impulse der strategischen Planung hinauskommt, die engmaschige Implementierung von Designs vermeidet, den externen Lokus der Handlungskontrolle in Rechenschaftssystemen stärker nach innen verlagert und die Initiative und Selbstbestimmung der engagierten Einzelnen oder Gruppen schätzt, ohne die Zufälligkeit von persönlichen Vorzügen oder Einsichten hinzunehmen? Eine solche Konzeption von Schulentwicklung würde Planung, Leistungstransparenz und evidenzbasierte Unterrichts- oder Organisationsdesigns so miteinander verbinden, dass die Bedürfnisse der Lernenden und Lehrenden vor Ort im Zentrum stehen und schulinternes Problemlösen mit externen Partnern in Netzwerken verknüpft wird. (DIPF/Orig.)The article discusses the potential and limitations of a variety of school improvement approaches practiced in the United States in order to show the usefulness of a design-based approach. Design-based school improvement is contrasted with dynamics of strategic planning, implementation of externally developed instructional programs or organizational change designs, and accountability. The question is posed: Can we imagine a form of school improvement that goes beyond the relatively weak effects of strategic planning, avoids the narrow confines of program or design implementations, and moves the locus of control from externally imposed accountability to internal self-determination, without giving free reign to individual preferences? Such a concept of school improvement would link planning, performance transparency, and evidence-based development of organizational and instructional designs in such a way that the needs of adult and student learners would be in the center and school-internal problem solving would be articulated with external networks of partners. (DIPF/Orig.

Data-based school leadership. Research results and practical experiences from a data-affine school system

Der Artikel untersucht, wie in Schulen quantitative Daten für Entscheidungen in Bezug auf den Unterricht genutzt werden. Der Kontext ist das US-amerikanische Schulsystem, das nach deutschen Maßstäben als ausgesprochen datenaffin gelten kann. Einer Beschreibung des institutionellen Kontextes folgt ein Überblick über die aktuelle amerikanische Forschungsliteratur zu diesem Thema. Eine Reihe von Befunden ist dabei hervorzuheben: Ohne eine ausgeprägte Dateninfrastruktur ist die Wirkung von Daten in den Schulen gering. Neben der technischen Beschaffenheit der Informationssysteme (z.B. einem handhabbaren Interface) sind Datenspezialisten und -spezialistinnen auf Schulebene, Fortbildungen und zusätzlich bereitgestellte Arbeitsstunden für die Auswertung der Daten organisatorische Vorbedingungen für eine produktive Datennutzung. Laut den amerikanischen Studien nutzen Schulen Daten vor allem dann, wenn die Datennutzung systemischen Charakter hat, d.h., wenn die Daten auf allen Ebenen des Schulsystems für wichtig gehalten werden. Die dargestellten Studien machen deutlich, dass hierbei der lokalen Schulaufsicht eine entscheidende Rolle zukommt. Eine Schulaufsicht - in den USA ist dies der Schuldistrikt -, die mit allen Ebenen des Systems über die Daten kommuniziert, ist deren reger Nutzung in besonderer Weise förderlich. (DIPF/Orig.)The article examines how quantitative data are used by schools for decisions about instruction. The context is the American educational system, which by German standards has a high affinity to data. After a brief description of the institutional context for data use, we give a summary of noteworthy findings drawn from the recent American research literature related to data-based decision making. The literature suggests that a well-developed data infrastructure and an easy-to-use interface are essential. Conducive organizational conditions are the availability of data specialists at the school level, professional development, and additional work hours dedicated to the study of data. Databased decision making ought to be systemic. It is facilitated at the school level when local school districts highlight the importance of data and communicate with all levels of the system via data. (DIPF/Orig.

Design-based school improvement in the German context. First experiences of a pilot project in the state of Berlin

Probleme im Bildungssystem sind oft mals sehr komplex und unstrukturiert, sodass sich für die Handelnden der Eindruck aufdrängt, dass „alles mit allem zusammenhängt“. Zudem werden viele Bedingungsfaktoren, die als ursächlich für das Problem angesehen werden, außerhalb der Kontrolle der Handelnden verortet. Die Methode der designbasierten Schulentwicklung (DBSE) trägt dieser Situation Rechnung. Sie beginnt mit der Diagnose gemeinsamer Dringlichkeiten oder Leidenschaften innerhalb eines Teams oder einer Organisationseinheit. Darauf folgt die Definition eines konkreten praktischen Problems. Die Ausgangslage, Ziele oder gewünschte Zustände werden festgelegt. Kausale Faktoren für problematische Verhaltensweisen, Überzeugungen oder Einstellungen werden analysiert und Stärken und Kapazitäten der Organisationseinheit sichtbar gemacht. Daran anschließend werden konkrete Aktivitäten geplant, die die gewünschte Veränderung vorantreiben sollen. Der Nachweis der Wirkung, die durch einfach handhabbare praktische Messgrößen festgestellt wird, macht Erfolge sichtbar und zeigt die Richtung für die nächsten Versuchsschleifen oder Iterationen auf. So wird kollektive und individuelle Selbstwirksamkeit erlebbar. Dieser logisch einfache Prozess wird durch Fallbeispiele, Tools und Artefakte strukturiert, die den Handelnden helfen, auch bei komplexen Problemstellungen den Überblick zu behalten. (DIPF/Orig.)Problems in the education system are often highly complex and unstructured, giving the impression that “everything is connected to everything else”. In addition, many causes for a given problem are indeed located outside the control of school-level actors. The design-based school improvement (DBSI) method addresses this issue. It begins with a diagnosis of shared urgencies or passions within a team or organizational unit. This is followed by the definition of a concrete practical problem. The baseline, goals, or desired states are established. Causal factors for problematic behaviors, beliefs or attitudes are analyzed and strengths and capacities of the organizational unit are made visible. Specific activities are then planned to drive the desired change. Evidence of impact, established through easy-to-use practical metrics, makes success visible and gives directions for next iterations. In this way, collective and individual self-efficacy can be experienced. The process is structured by tools and artifacts that help problem-solvers to keep track of their collective thinking and action in the midst of complexity. (DIPF/Orig.

School Closure as a Strategy to Remedy Low Performance

This brief investigates whether closing schools and transferring students for the purpose of remedying low performance is an option educational decision makers should pursue. The authors draw on a relatively limited evidence base that consists of peer-reviewed research studies and well-researched policy reports. The authors conclude that school closures as a strategy for remedying student achievement in low-performing schools is a high-risk/low-gain strategy that fails to hold promise with respect to either student achievement or non-cognitive well-being. It causes political conflict and incurs hidden costs for both districts and local communities, especially low-income communities of color that are deferentially affected by school closings. It stands to reason that in many instances, students, parents, local communities, district and state policymakers may be better off investing in persistently low-performing schools rather than closing them

What Might Happen If School Vouchers and Privatization of Schools Were to Become Universal in the U.S.: Learning from a National Test Case—Chile

In contemporary education policy debates in the United States, school voucher programs and school privatization—the entry of many private for-profit corporations and nonprofit and other organizations into the education arena—are under the spotlight. Following in the footsteps of several prior administrations, the current federal administration is actively supporting vouchers and privatization as ways to expand school choice for American parents and students. Some state governments have followed suit. Currently, the vast majority of students in the U.S. go to public schools. Experiments with vouchers and privatization are still relatively peripheral in the U.S. But what might happen if vouchers and privatization were to become universal features of American publicly funded education? A national test case of such conditions is available in Chile. By looking at that country’s experience, we can imagine what might happen if the U.S. were to take the route of universal privatization and vouchers