Creating domestic building thermal performance ratings using smart meter data

Energy performance certificates (EPCs) are ratings of domestic building energy performance mandated across the European Union. Their aim is to provide a reliable assessment of a building’s energy performance whilst accounting for non-building effects such as weather and occupancy. Current rating methods, based on theoretical calculations, can introduce significant error from an inability to estimate real building performance. Other methods using real energy data cannot isolate building performance from other effects due to low data resolution. The installation of smart meters in large proportions of the housing stock in European Union member states presents an opportunity. Harnessing high-resolution energy data can create or inform building energy performance ratings with reduced error and at scale. This critical review explores the challenges and opportunities of using smart meter data in building energy ratings, focusing primarily on quantifying the thermal performance of the building and heating system. The research gaps in this emerging field are identified, including: demonstrating that the rating is truly independent of the behaviour of specific occupants; the additional data inputs that add most value in combination with smart meter data; and reducing uncertainty whilst limiting the complexity of the measurement and calculatio

Chlorine isotope composition in chlorofluorocarbons CFC-11, CFC-12 and CFC-113 in firn, stratospheric and tropospheric air

The stratospheric degradation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) releases chlorine, which is a major contributor to the destruction of stratospheric ozone (O3). A recent study reported strong chlorine isotope fractionation during the breakdown of the most abundant CFC (CFC-12, CCl2F2, Laube et al., 2010a), similar to effects seen in nitrous oxide (N2O). Using air archives to obtain a long-term record of chlorine isotope ratios in CFCs could help to identify and quantify their sources and sinks. We analyse the three most abundant CFCs and show that CFC-11 (CCl3F) and CFC-113 (CClF2CCl2F) exhibit significant stratospheric chlorine isotope fractionation, in common with CFC-12. The apparent isotope fractionation (εapp) for mid- and high-latitude stratospheric samples are (-2.4±0.5) ‰ and (-2.3±0.4) ‰ for CFC-11, (-12.2±1.6) ‰ and (-6.8±0.8) ‰ for CFC-12 and (-3.5±1.5) ‰ and (-3.3±1.2) ‰ for CFC-113, respectively. Assuming a constant isotope composition of emissions, we calculate the expected trends in the tropospheric isotope signature of these gases based on their stratospheric 37Cl enrichment and stratosphere-troposphere exchange. We compare these projections to the long-term δ(37Cl) trends of all three CFCs, measured on background tropospheric samples from the Cape Grim air archive (Tasmania, 1978 – 2010) and tropospheric firn air samples from Greenland (NEEM site) and Antarctica (Fletcher Promontory site). From 1970 to the present-day, projected trends agree with tropospheric measurements, suggesting that within analytical uncertainties a constant average emission isotope delta is a compatible scenario. The measurement uncertainty is too high to determine whether the average emission isotope delta has been affected by changes in CFC manufacturing processes, or not. Our study increases the suite of trace gases amenable to direct isotope ratio measurements in small air volumes (approximately 200 ml), using a single-detector gas chromatography-mass spectrometry system

Increasing response rates and improving research design: Learnings from the Smart Energy Research Lab in the United Kingdom

Obtaining high-resolution energy consumption data from a large, representative sample of homes is critical for research, but low response rates, sample bias and high recruitment costs form substantial barriers. The widespread installation of smart meters offers a novel route to access such data, but in countries like Great Britain (GB) consent is required from each household; a real barrier to large-scale sampling. In this paper we show how certain study design choices can impact the response rate for energy studies requesting access to half-hourly smart meter data and (optional) survey completion. We used a randomised control trial (RCT) with a 3×2×2 factorial design; 3 (including none) incentive groups ×2 message content/structures ×2 ‘push-to-web’ treatment groups. Up to 4 mailings (letters) were sent to 18,000 addresses, recruiting 1711 participants (9.5% response rate) in England and Wales. The most effective strategy offered a conditional £5 voucher and postal response options in multiple mailings (compared to only once in the push-to-web approach, although at the expense of far fewer online signups). Motivational headlines and message structure were also found to be influential. Reminders increased response but a 4th mailing was not cost effective. Our results and recommendations can be used to help future energy studies to achieve greater response rates and improved representation. UK-based researchers can apply to use our longitudinal smart meter and contextual datasets

Religion and religious education : comparing and contrasting pupils’ and teachers’ views in an English school

This publication builds on and develops the English findings of the qualitative study of European teenagers’ perspectives on religion and religious education (Knauth et al. 2008), part of ‘Religion in Education: A contribution to dialogue or a factor of conflict in transforming societies of European countries?’ (REDCo) project. It uses data gathered from 27 pupils, aged 15-16, from a school in a multicultural Northern town in England and compares those findings with data gathered from ten teachers in the humanities faculty of the same school, collected during research for the Warwick REDCo Community of Practice. Comparisons are drawn between the teachers’ and their pupils’ attitudes and values using the same structure as the European study: personal views and experiences of religion, the social dimension of religion, and religious education in school. The discussion offers an analysis of the similarities and differences in worldviews and beliefs which emerged. These include religious commitment/observance differences between the mainly Muslim-heritage pupils and their mainly non-practising Christian-heritage teachers. The research should inform the ways in which the statutory duties to promote community cohesion and equalities can be implemented in schools. It should also facilitate intercultural and interreligious understanding between teachers and the pupils from different ethnic and religious backgrounds

Diagramming social practice theory:An interdisciplinary experiment exploring practices as networks

Achieving a transition to a low-carbon energy system is now widely recognised as a key challenge facing humanity. To date, the vast majority of research addressing this challenge has been conducted within the disciplines of science, engineering and economics utilising quantitative and modelling techniques. However, there is growing awareness that meeting energy challenges requires fundamentally socio-technical solutions and that the social sciences have an important role to play. This is an interdisciplinary challenge but, to date, there remain very few explorations of, or reflections on, interdisciplinary energy research in practice. This paper seeks to change that by reporting on an interdisciplinary experiment to build new models of energy demand on the basis of cutting-edge social science understandings. The process encouraged the social scientists to communicate their ideas more simply, whilst allowing engineers to think critically about the embedded assumptions in their models in relation to society and social change. To do this, the paper uses a particular set of theoretical approaches to energy use behaviour known collectively as social practice theory (SPT) - and explores the potential of more quantitative forms of network analysis to provide a formal framework by means of which to diagram and visualize practices. The aim of this is to gain insight into the relationships between the elements of a practice, so increasing the ultimate understanding of how practices operate. Graphs of practice networks are populated based on new empirical data drawn from a survey of different types (or variants) of laundry practice. The resulting practice networks are analysed to reveal characteristics of elements and variants of practice, such as which elements could be considered core to the practice, or how elements between variants overlap, or can be shared. This promises insights into energy intensity, flexibility and the rootedness of practices (i.e. how entrenched/ established they are) and so opens up new questions and possibilities for intervention. The novelty of this approach is that it allows practice data to be represented graphically using a quantitative format without being overly reductive. Its usefulness is that it is readily applied to large datasets, provides the capacity to interpret social practices in new ways, and serves to open up potential links with energy modeling. More broadly, a significant dimension of novelty has been the interdisciplinary approach, radically different to that normally seen in energy research. This paper is relevant to a broad audience of social scientists and engineers interested in integrating social practices with energy engineering

A Census of Rotating Radio Transients at 150 MHz with the Irish LOFAR Station

Rotating radio transients (RRATs) are neutron stars that emit detectable radio bursts sporadically. They are statistically distinct in the neutron star population, in many observable properties, but by their nature are practically difficult to study in depth. In this paper, we present the results from 1408 h of observations of RRAT candidates using the Irish station of the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) at 150 MHz. As of October 2022, this census involved observing 113 sources, leading to 29 detections which were then followed up systematically. Single-pulse emission was detected from 25 sources, and periodic emission from 14 sources. 18 sources were found to have emission behaviour that is not discussed in prior works using LOFAR instruments. Four novel or modified source periods have been determined, ranging from 1.5-3.9 s, and 8 new or updated phase-coherent pulsar timing ephemerides have been produced using detected bursts. One unexpected single-pulse with a clearly-Galactic dispersion measure was detected as a part of this work, but has not been re-detected in follow-up observations. Observations are ongoing to expand the number of observed sources and further characterise and improve ephemerides for the detected sources. This census has demonstrated the capability for international LOFAR stations to detect, monitor and characterise a significant fraction of these unique sources.Comment: Accepted by MNRAS. 24 pages, 7 figures, 8 table

Functional interplay between NTP leaving group and base pair recognition during RNA polymerase II nucleotide incorporation revealed by methylene substitution.

RNA polymerase II (pol II) utilizes a complex interaction network to select and incorporate correct nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) substrates with high efficiency and fidelity. Our previous 'synthetic nucleic acid substitution' strategy has been successfully applied in dissecting the function of nucleic acid moieties in pol II transcription. However, how the triphosphate moiety of substrate influences the rate of P-O bond cleavage and formation during nucleotide incorporation is still unclear. Here, by employing β,γ-bridging atom-'substituted' NTPs, we elucidate how the methylene substitution in the pyrophosphate leaving group affects cognate and non-cognate nucleotide incorporation. Intriguingly, the effect of the β,γ-methylene substitution on the non-cognate UTP/dT scaffold (∼3-fold decrease in kpol) is significantly different from that of the cognate ATP/dT scaffold (∼130-fold decrease in kpol). Removal of the wobble hydrogen bonds in U:dT recovers a strong response to methylene substitution of UTP. Our kinetic and modeling studies are consistent with a unique altered transition state for bond formation and cleavage for UTP/dT incorporation compared with ATP/dT incorporation. Collectively, our data reveals the functional interplay between NTP triphosphate moiety and base pair hydrogen bonding recognition during nucleotide incorporation

The SERL Observatory Dataset: Longitudinal Smart Meter Electricity and Gas Data, Survey, EPC and Climate Data for over 13,000 Households in Great Britain

The Smart Energy Research Lab (SERL) Observatory dataset described here comprises half-hourly and daily electricity and gas data, SERL survey data, Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) input data and 24 local hourly climate reanalysis variables from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) for over 13,000 households in Great Britain (GB). Participants were recruited in September 2019, September 2020 and January 2021 and their smart meter data are collected from up to one year prior to sign up. Data collection will continue until at least August 2022, and longer if funding allows. Survey data relating to the dwelling, appliances, household demographics and attitudes were collected at sign up. Data are linked at the household level and UK-based academic researchers can apply for access within a secure virtual environment for research projects in the public interest. This is a data descriptor paper describing how the data were collected, the variables available and the representativeness of the sample compared to national estimates. It is intended to be a guide for researchers working with or considering using the SERL Observatory dataset, or simply looking to learn more about it

Survey study on energy use in UK homes during Covid-19

To contain the spread of Covid-19, governments across the world imposed partial or complete lockdowns. National energy demand decreased in periods of lockdowns; however, as people spent more time at home, residential energy use likely increased. This paper reports the results of a UK survey study (N = 1016 participants) about their energy-use practices during the first lockdown in March 2020. The results indicated that self-reported heating behaviours did not substantially change during lockdown. Regarding appliance use, in particular the duration of usage for televisions and computing equipment has increased and has spread more over the day. Being less able to manage financially was correlated with a greater usage of the smart meter in-home display and a greater attempt to save energy was positively correlated with greater usage of the in-home display, though correlations were small. In summary, the results indicate that home energy-use behaviours, in particular around heating, did not change as much as might have been expected, which might at least partly be explained by the comparatively warm weather during the first lockdown. Corroborating the survey findings with actual energy data is the next essential step to understand findings in more detail