Der jugoslawische Zerfallsprozess aus der Perspektive der Entwicklungsökonomie

Zu Beginn des 20. Jhd. steht die überwältigende Idee eines gemeinsamen Vielvölkerstaates. Das Existenzrecht Jugoslawiens erweist sich allerdings von Beginn an als trügerisch. Denn den Volksgemeinschaften gelingt es nicht, ihre unterschiedlichen Interessen in Einklang zu bringen. 1992 wird mit der Ausrufung der Unabhängigkeit Sloweniens und Kroatiens das Ende Jugoslawien eingeleitet. Es folgt ein erbitterter Bürgerkrieg, der vielen tausend Menschen das Leben kostet, und Millionen Heimatlos macht. In der Literatur finden sich auch rasch die Schuldigen: demnach sind es die ehemaligen Präsidenten der Teilrepubliken, die für das jugoslawische Drama verantwortlich sind. Zudem werden weitere endogene Faktoren, wie etwa Religion, Kultur, Ethnizität und der daraus entstandene Nationalismus herangezogen, um das Ende des Vielvölkerstaates zu erklären. Könnte sich der Zerfall aber nicht auch anders zugetragen haben? Ist der failed state Jugoslawien tatsächlich einzig ein Produkt eines schwachen Staates? Oder könnte der Zerfall möglicherweise der Einverleibung des Landes als Peripherie in das „moderne Weltsystem“ voraus gegangen sein? Die angestrengte interdisziplinäre Grundlagenforschung soll möglichst objektive Antworten auf diese zwei Hauptthematiken geben. Sie soll mögliche Hintergründe und Ursachen für die Peripherisierung des Vielvölkerstaates, die hauptsächlich in der Staatsschwäche und der Abhängigkeit des Landes von den kapitalistischen Zentren vermutet werden, reflektieren. Hierbei sollen die „moderne Weltsystemtheorie“ Immanuel Wallersteins und das Konzept des „failed state“ als Haupterklärungsansätze für den Zerfall des Landes dienen. Ein schwacher Staat ist Hauptcharakteristika einer Peripherie und Jugoslawien ist ein schwacher scheiternder Staat. Nach nur einem Jahrzehnt des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums, folgt mit dem Ende des konsensualen Fordismus die Ernüchterung: ein Rückgang der terms of trade, zunehmende Unproduktivität, fehlende Innovation, sowie wegbrechende Exportmärkte. Mit der Wirtschaftskrise traten verstärkt Verteilungskämpfe hervor, als auch die Frage über die zukünftige Regierungsform des Landes, die sich durch verstärkte föderalistische Politiken und einer allmählichen Deformierung der Staatsstrukturen manifestierte. Bei der Schwächung des Landes spielen die Eliten der Teilrepubliken eine wesentliche Rolle; diese trieben jahrelang die Dezentralisierung staatlicher Institutionen voran und formulierten persistent nationalere Politiken, da es ihnen ein Anliegen war Profit zu erwirtschaften, was mit einer sozialistischen Wirtschaftspolitik und ihren marktwirtschaftlichen Einschränkungen freilich undenkbar wäre. Besonders mit der Verfassungsreform von 1974, die eine endgültige Zersplitterung des Landes vorsah, sollte der Beginn des Endes des sozialistischen Projekts Jugoslawien eingeleitet werden. Um die Zerstörung des Landes in seiner Gesamtheit zu begreifen, greifen die Faktoren der ökonomischen Verteilungskämpfe und der Staatsschwäche zu kurz. Denn die Auflösung der SFRJ war auch ein Ergebnis des sich in den siebziger Jahren etablierenden neoliberalen Wirtschaftsprogramms. Die Einverleibung Jugoslawiens in das moderne Weltsystem hatte leichtes Spiel: die Existenz der sozialistische Republik war in vielerlei Hinsicht sehr früh von internationalen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen abhängig. Mit dem „Tito-Stalin-Bruch“ 1948 aber und der damit verbundenen Abkehr von der UDSSR, war das Land, um sich ökonomisch weiterzuentwickeln, alsgleich auf die Zentren angewiesen, was zu einer immer intensiveren Exportorientierung des Landes führte. Im Zuge umfassender Kreditaufnahmen in den siebziger Jahren, die Jugoslawien aufgrund des Wirtschaftseinbruchs tätigte, erzwingen die kapitalistischen Zentren eine allumfassende Liberalisierung der Ökonomie. Denn die Aufnahme von Krediten bedeutet letztendlich, die von internationalen Finanzorganisationen auferlegten Konditionen zuzustimmen, die Jugoslawien endgültig zu einer Randzone der Zentren machte.There is a stunning idea of a multi-ethnic state at the inception of the 20th century. The right of Yugoslavia’s existence seems to be trappy from it‘s very beginning, since the ethnical groups fail to succeed to accord their particular interests. The end of Yugoslavia’s existence starts with the proclamation of independence of Slovenia and Croatia. The output is an embittered war, which kills tens of thousands of people and forces millions to leave their homes making them refugees. The culprits were quickly found. Hence, these are the ex-presidents of the ex-Yugoslav republics, who are responsible for the Yugoslav drama. Furthermore, there are other endogenous factors, such as religion, culture, ethnicity and the subsequent nationalism, to be pulled up to explain the end of this multi-ethnical s state. Could there possibly be another version of the collapse of the Yugoslav state? Is the failed state of Yugoslavia really a single output of a weak state? Or, could it be that the collapse perhaps happened due to the annexation of the Yugoslav state as the periphery of the „modern world system“? The exerted interdisciplinary basic research should give proper answers for these two main subjects. This reasearch should reflect on possible backgrounds and sources of the peripherisation of the multi-ethnic state, which are assumed to be found in the dependence from the capitalistic centres of power. Therefore, the „modern world system theory“ of Immanuel Wallerstein and the conception of the „failed state“ should be used as the main explanation approach for the collapse of the state of Yugoslavia. A weak state is the main trait of a periphery and Yugoslavia is a weak collapsing state. After just one decade of economic growth is the sobering what follows with the end of the consensual fordism: The decrease of the terms of trade, falling produktivity, missing innovation as well as the breakdown of the export markets. With the economical crisis came the struggle for economic resources as well as the question about the prospective form of the government. The elite of the ex-Yugoslav republics played an essential role in weakening the state. These pushed on the decentralisation of the institutions of the state and tried to establish a more dominant national policies due to achieve more profit which, indeed, was incompatible within a socialistic system. Especially the reformation of the Yugoslav constitution in 1974 advanced the definitely fragmentation of the state and it’s socialistic project of Yugoslavia. One of the further reasons of the collapse of Yugoslavia was the establishment of the neoliberal economic programe during the 1970’s. The annexation of Yugoslavia into the modern world system thus became even more easy. The existence of the socialistic republic was addicted to the international political and economic frame conditions. After the break between Tito and Stalin, Yugoslavia was financially dependent on the capitalistic centres, which actually led to a more intensive export orientation of the state. The economic break down of Yugoslavia led to draw on credits during the 1970’s. The capitalistic centres used this situation to force an all-embracing liberalisation of the Yugoslav economic system. Drawing on credits means to agree with the conditions of the financial organisations, which then made Yugoslavia a fringe zone of the centres

Feasibility Conditions of SIR-based Power Control in TDMA Wireless Systems

Abstract -In this paper, the problem of SIR-based power control in narrowband wireless systems is revisited. Results on feasibility conditions of SIR-based power control are given. We stated and proved the relations between the achievable SIR and the link gain matrix in a narrowband system. Taking into account the orders of the realistic values for the problem quantities and assuming the desired SIR is chosen properly, then there exist infinite many solutions of the SIR-based power control problem. Otherwise, there is hardly a solution since the existence conditions are very restrictive. It is noticeable that these feasibility conditions have important implications on systems capacity and can be applied to call admission control(CAC). Based on the feasibility conditions, an improved stepwise removal algorithm (ISRA) is proposed for TDMA systems to achieve a better performance

Recursive Reduced-Order Algorithm for Singularly Perturbed Cross Grammian Algebraic Sylvester Equation

A new recursive algorithm is developed for solving the algebraic Sylvester equation that defines the cross Grammian of singularly perturbed linear systems. The cross Grammian matrix provides aggregate information about controllability and observability of a linear system. The solution is obtained in terms of reduced-order algebraic Sylvester equations that correspond to slow and fast subsystems of a singularly perturbed system. The rate of convergence of the proposed algorithm is Oε, where ε is a small singular perturbation parameter that indicates separation of slow and fast state variables. Several real physical system examples are solved to demonstrate efficiency of the proposed algorithm

Polyphenolic Profile of Sambucus Ebulus Root, Leaf and Fruit Extracts

Sambucus ebulus L. is a perennial herbaceous plant popular in folk medicine in Western Europe, Balkan and Middle East regions. Its preparations and extracts have shown wide range of biological activities against various disease and conditions. Isolation of the phenolic components was conducted using microwave-assisted extraction technique, while identification and quantification of isolated compounds were conducted using HPLC-DAD analysis. Fourteen compounds were detected and quantified in the extracts of the plant root, leaves and fruit, whereby rutin was predominant compound in all three samples. Minor compound in root sample was ferulic acid, in the leaves extract was chlorogenic acid, while in fruit sample was luteolin. Contrary, protocatehuic acid, caffeic acid, luteolin glycoside and apigenin glycoside were not detected in any of analyzed extracts

Endocytosis and lysosomal degradation of GluA2/3 AMPARs in response to oxygen/glucose deprivation in hippocampal but not cortical neurons

Abstract Global cerebral ischemia results in oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) and consequent delayed cell death of vulnerable neurons, with hippocampal CA1 neurons more vulnerable than cortical neurons. Most AMPA receptors (AMPARs) are heteromeric complexes of subunits GluA1/GluA2 or GluA2/GluA3, and the presence of GluA2 renders AMPARs Ca2+-impermeable. In hippocampal CA1 neurons, OGD causes the synaptic expression of GluA2-lacking Ca2+-permeable AMPARs, contributing to toxic Ca2+ influx. The loss of synaptic GluA2 is caused by rapid trafficking of GluA2-containing AMPARs from the cell surface, followed by a delayed reduction in GluA2 mRNA expression. We show here that OGD causes endocytosis, lysosomal targeting and consequent degradation of GluA2- and GluA3-containing AMPARs, and that PICK1 is required for both OGD-induced GluA2 endocytosis and lysosomal sorting. Our results further suggest that GluA1-containing AMPARs resist OGD-induced endocytosis. OGD does not cause GluA2 endocytosis in cortical neurons, and we show that PICK1 binding to the endocytic adaptor AP2 is enhanced by OGD in hippocampal, but not cortical neurons. We propose that endocytosis of GluA2/3, caused by a hippocampal-specific increase in PICK1-AP2 interactions, followed by PICK1-dependent lysosomal targeting, are critical events in determining changes in AMPAR subunit composition in the response to ischaemia

Spectroscopic ellipsometry and polarimetry for materials and systems analysis at the nanometer scale: state-of-the-art, potential, and perspectives

This paper discusses the fundamentals, applications, potential, limitations, and future perspectives of polarized light reflection techniques for the characterization of materials and related systems and devices at the nanoscale. These techniques include spectroscopic ellipsometry, polarimetry, and reflectance anisotropy. We give an overview of the various ellipsometry strategies for the measurement and analysis of nanometric films, metal nanoparticles and nanowires, semiconductor nanocrystals, and submicron periodic structures. We show that ellipsometry is capable of more than the determination of thickness and optical properties, and it can be exploited to gain information about process control, geometry factors, anisotropy, defects, and quantum confinement effects of nanostructures

Differential Protection for Arbitrary Three-Phase Power Transformers

This thesis describes how to provide standardized, current based, differential protection for any three-phase power transformer, including phase-shifting transformers with variable phase angle shift and transformers of all construction types and internal on-load tap-changer configurations. The use of standard transformer differential protection for such applications is considered impossible in the protective relaying standards and practices currently applied. The first part of the thesis provides the background for different types of power transformers and the differential protection schemes currently applied. After that a complete mathematical proof for the new, universal transformer differential protection principle, based on theory of symmetrical components, is derived. It is demonstrated that it is possible to make numerical differential protection relays which can properly calculate differential currents for any power transformer, regardless of whether it is of fixed or variable phase angle shift construction and whether current magnitude variations are caused by on-load tapchanger(s). It is shown how to correctly calculate differential currents by simultaneously providing on-line compensation for current magnitude variations, on-line compensation for arbitrary phase angle shift variations and settable zero-sequence current reduction on any power transformer side. By using this method differential protection for arbitrary power transformers will be ideally balanced for all symmetrical and nonsymmetrical through-load conditions and external faults. The method is independent of individual transformer winding connection details (i.e. star, delta or zigzag), but dependent on having the correct information about actual on-load tap-changer(s) position if they are built-in within the protected power transformer. The implementation and practical use of this new universal principle is quite simple, as all necessary transformer data is commonly available on the protected power transformer rating plate. Practical application of the universal method for the differential protection of standard transformers, special transformers and phase shifting transformer is presented. Detailed testing of this new universal differential protection method is given and it is based on actual field recordings captured by numerical relays in existing phase-shifting transformer installations and on simulations from the Real Time Digital Simulator for a practical dual-core, symmetrical phaseshifting transformer. The implementation of the universal transformer differential method for analogue and numerical transformer differential relays is also described. Problems for the differential protection caused by transformer inrush currents are discussed. The mathematical relationship between differential protection and directional protection is derived. Then it is shown that through the addition of supplementary directional criteria security and speed of the operation of the transformer differential protection can be improved. Finally, the use of additional directional criteria to significantly improve the sensitivity of the differential protection for transformer winding turn-to-turn faults is suggested. Captured disturbance files from numerical differential relays in actual power transformer installations, during internal and external faults, have been used to demonstrate the performance of additional directional criteria