Drawing a Global Color Line: “The American Negro Exhibit” at the 1900 Paris Exposition

This chapter examines the role African Americans had in the 1900 Paris Exposition. It focuses on “The American Negro Exhibit”, set up by prominent African American activists and intellectuals, such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington and Thomas J. Calloway, in order to represent the progress and achievements of blacks in the U.S. in the three decades following the end of the Civil War. Based on research carried out in the Daniel Murray Pamphlet Collection and the Booker T. Washington Papers at the Library of Congress, the Archives Nationales and the Bibliotèque Nationale in Paris, this chapter highlights the ways in which the 1900 Paris Exposition became a way for African Americans of challenging the forms of racism against blacks and colonized people carried out in the so-called “native villages”, and more broadly in society, and establish new forms of solidarity and political activism, domestically and internationally. At the World’s Columbian Exposition, held in 1893 in Chicago, African Americans had already criticized the U.S. government for denying them fair representations, through the pamphlet, The Reason why the Colored American is not in the World’s Columbian Exposition. In 1900, they demanded the right to be assigned a space where to set up “an exhibit of the progress of the American negroes in education and industry”. “The American Negro Exhibit” presented African Americans’ success in education, literature, industry and commerce, by making wide use of photography, charts and graphs. Its main aim was to challenge the idea that African Americans were “a mass of rapists, ready to attack every white woman exposed, and a drug in civilized society”, and highlighted the achievements of the so-called New Negroes. The images showed middle-class, respectable urban blacks, members of a generation that had not experienced slavery, while at the same time emphasizing the emergence of new forms of racism and violence in the South. “The American Negro Exhibit” served as a turning point in the history of African American activism. Indeed, in the context of the 1900 Paris Exposition, Washington and Du Bois grew further apart, offering profoundly different understandings of race relations in the U.S. and globally. On the one hand, Washington advanced the idea that the forms of racial integration promoted by the Tuskegee Institute should serve as a model for African colonies, uplifting Africans through work and discipline. On the other hand, in one of the plates displayed at the exhibition, Du Bois introduced the notion that “the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line”, a statement he later presented at the First Pan-African Conference, held in London in July 1900. For both leaders, the 1900 Paris Exposition allowed for the establishment of new transnational alliances with activists in Europe and Africa, which flourished after the First World War

A transatlantic shock: Italy's energy policies between the Mediterranean and the EEC, 1967-1974

This article analyzes Italy’s energy politics in the context of the 1973 “oil shock,” by focusing on the policies carried out by the Italian government and by the State-owned oil company Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi (National Hydrocarbon Agency, ENI) between the outbreak of the Six Day War in 1967 and the mid-1970s. It places Italy’s oil politics in the framework of post-World War II international relations, and argues that Italy responded to oil producers’ increased power much earlier than other consuming countries. In the 1950s and 1960s, ENI established an autonomous position in the international oil market, by offering oil producers wider control over their energy resources. Drawing on these policies, during and after the Six Day War and in the context of the 1973 “oil shock,” ENI was able to pursue bilateral relations with producers, such as Libya, Algeria, Saudi Arabia and the USSR, which revolved around the exchange of oil for technical and economic aid and training. At the same time, the Italian government, through Foreign Minister Aldo Moro, linked in new and original ways the changes taking place in the Mediterranean with the process of détente. He promoted a dialogue between the European Economic Community (EEC) and Arab countries, around issues relating to security, peace and economic cooperation. However, Italy’s policies increasingly clashed with US interpretations of the “oil shock.” During the Energy Conference, held in Washington DC in February 1974, Italy aligned itself with the US position, and became an active member of the International Energy Agency (IEA), while at the same time continuing to promote forms of economic cooperation between the two sides of the Mediterranean

Hyperreflective Intraretinal Foci as an OCT Biomarker of Retinal Inflammation in Diabetic Macular Edema

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PETROLIO E RISORSE ENERGETICHE NELL'ETA' CONTEMPORANEA

Siamo agli sgoccioli, letteralmente: per il petrolio si avvicina ormai la fine, e forse troppo tardi si cercano energie alternative. Eppure il petrolio ha una sua storia: celebrato nella prima metà del Novecento come la più importante risorsa energetica a basso costo – in grado di alimentare la diffusione su scala mondiale di un modello di consumi di massa – è stato messo all’indice negli anni Settanta in quanto causa principale della crisi economica internazionale, per poi tornare, negli ultimi trent’anni, al centro di un confronto pubblico e scientifico legato alla sua insostenibilità ambientale. Alla luce dell’attuale crisi energetica e del dibattito sulla “fine del petrolio”, ecco una riflessione di lungo periodo sulla rilevanza del petrolio nella storia del Novecento, nella quale si evidenziano i molteplici modi in cui l’oro nero ha segnato i rapporti tra i paesi produttori e quelli consumatori. Dal Medio Oriente all’Africa occidentale, dalla periferia del continente americano all’Unione Sovietica, viene qui analizzata l’importanza che l’economia petrolifera ha avuto nel definire le relazioni internazionali, nel consolidare i regimi politici e lavorativi dei paesi produttori, e nel rendere possibile la costruzione di economie e società tutte incentrate sul modello unico del consumo di prodotti petroliferi

Mercury Inactivates Transcription and the Generalized Transcription Factor TFB in the Archaeon \u3ci\u3eSulfolobus solfataricus\u3c/i\u3e

Mercury has a long history as an antimicrobial agent effective against eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Despite its prolonged use, the basis for mercury toxicity in prokaryotes is not well understood. Archaea, like bacteria, are prokaryotes but they use a simplified version of the eukaryotic transcription apparatus. This study examined the mechanism of mercury toxicity to the archaeal prokaryote Sulfolobus solfataricus. In vivo challenge with mercuric chloride instantaneously blocked cell division, eliciting a cytostatic response at submicromolar concentrations and a cytocidal response at micromolar concentrations. The cytostatic response was accompanied by a 70% reduction in bulk RNA synthesis and elevated rates of degradation of several transcripts, including tfb-1, tfb-2, and lacS. Whole-cell extracts prepared from mercuric chloride-treated cells or from cell extracts treated in vitro failed to support in vitro transcription of 16S rRNAp and lacSp promoters. Extract-mixing experiments with treated and untreated extracts excluded the occurrence of negative-acting factors in the mercury-treated cell extracts. Addition of transcription factor B (TFB), a general transcription factor homolog of eukaryotic TFIIB, to mercury-treated cell extracts restored \u3e50% of in vitro transcription activity. Consistent with this finding, mercuric ion treatment of TFB in vitro inactivated its ability to restore the in vitro transcription activity of TFB-immunodepleted cell extracts. These findings indicate that the toxicity of mercuric ion in S. solfataricus is in part the consequence of transcription inhibition due to TFB-1 inactivation

Molecular Characterization of the α-Glucosidase Gene (\u3ci\u3emalA\u3c/i\u3e) from the Hyperthermophilic Archaeon \u3ci\u3eSulfolobus solfataricus\u3c/i\u3e

Acidic hot springs are colonized by a diversity of hyperthermophilic organisms requiring extremes of temperature and pH for growth. To clarify how carbohydrates are consumed in such locations, the structural gene (malA) encoding the major soluble α-glucosidase (maltase) and flanking sequences from Sulfolobus solfataricus were cloned and characterized. This is the first report of an α-glucosidase gene from the archaeal domain. malA is 2,083 bp and encodes a protein of 693 amino acids with a calculated mass of 80.5 kDa. It is flanked on the 5’ side by an unusual 1-kb intergenic region. Northern blot analysis of the malA region identified transcripts for malA and an upstream open reading frame located 5’ to the 1-kb intergenic region. The malA transcription start site was located by primer extension analysis to a guanine residue 8 bp 5’ of the malA start codon. Gel mobility shift analysis of the malA promoter region suggests that sequences 3’ to position 233, including a consensus archaeal TATA box, play an essential role in malA expression. malA homologs were detected by Southern blot analysis in other S. solfataricus strains and in Sulfolobus shibatae, while no homologs were evident in Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, lending further support to the proposed revision of the genus Sulfolobus. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that the closest S. solfataricus α-glucosidase homologs are of mammalian origin. Characterization of the recombinant enzyme purified from Escherichia coli revealed differences from the natural enzyme in thermostability and electrophoretic behavior. Glycogen is a substrate for the recombinant enzyme. Unlike maltose hydrolysis, glycogen hydrolysis is optimal at the intracellular pH of the organism. These results indicate a unique role for the S. solfataricus α-glucosidase in carbohydrate metabolism

Managing female urinary incontinence: A regional prospective analysis of cost-utility ratios (curs) and effectiveness

Introduction: To evaluate the cost-utility of incontinence treatments, particularly anticholinergic therapy, by examining costs and quality-adjusted life years. Materials and methods: A prospective cohort study of women who were consecutively referred by general practitioners (GPs) to the Urology Department because of urinary incontinence. The primary outcome was evaluation of the cost-utility of incontinence treatments (surgery, medical therapy and physiotherapy) for stress and/or urgency incontinence by examining costs and quality-adjusted life years. Results: 137 consecutive female patients (mean age 60.6 ± 11.6; range 36-81) were enrolled and stratified according to pathologies: SUI and UUI. Group A: SUI grade II-III: 43 patients who underwent mid-urethral sling (MUS); Group B: SUI grade I-II 57 patients who underwent pelvic floor muscle exercise and Group C: UUI: 37 patients who underwent antimuscarinic treatment with 5 mg solifenacin daily. The cost utility ratio (CUR) was estimated as saving more than €1200 per QALY for surgery and physiotherapy and as costing under € 100 per QALY for drug therapy. Conclusions: This study shows that appropriate diagnosis and treatment of a patient with incontinence lowers National Health Service costs and improves the benefits of treatment and quality of life

Pathogen Control in the Built Environment: A Probiotic-Based System as a Remedy for the Spread of Antibiotic Resistance

The high and sometimes inappropriate use of disinfectants and antibiotics has led to alarming levels of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and to high water and hearth pollution, which today represent major threats for public health. Furthermore, the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has deeply influenced our sanitization habits, imposing the massive use of chemical disinfectants potentially exacerbating both concerns. Moreover, super-sanitation can profoundly influence the environmental microbiome, potentially resulting counterproductive when trying to stably eliminate pathogens. Instead, environmentally friendly procedures based on microbiome balance principles, similar to what applied to living organisms, may be more effective, and probiotic-based eco-friendly sanitation has been consistently reported to provide stable reduction of both pathogens and AMR in treated-environments, compared to chemical disinfectants. Here, we summarize the results of the studies performed in healthcare settings, suggesting that such an approach may be applied successfully also to non-healthcare environments, including the domestic ones, based on its effectiveness, safety, and negligible environmental impact

Coordinate Transcriptional Control in the Hyperthermophilic Archaeon \u3ci\u3eSulfolobus solfataricus\u3c/i\u3e

The existence of a global gene regulatory system in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is described. The system is responsive to carbon source quality and acts at the level of transcription to coordinate synthesis of three physically unlinked glycosyl hydrolases implicated in carbohydrate utilization. The specific activities of three enzymes, an a-glucosidase (malA), a b-glycosidase (lacS), and an a-amylase, were reduced 4-, 20-, and 10-fold, respectively, in response to the addition of supplementary carbon sources to a minimal sucrose medium. Western blot analysis using anti-a-glucosidase and anti-b-glycosidase antibodies indicated that reduced enzyme activities resulted exclusively from decreased enzyme levels. Northern blot analysis of malA and lacS mRNAs revealed that changes in enzyme abundance arose primarily from reductions in transcript concentrations. Culture conditions precipitating rapid changes in lacS gene expression were established to determine the response time of the regulatory system in vivo. Full induction occurred within a single generation whereas full repression occurred more slowly, requiring nearly 38 generations. Since lacS mRNA abundance changed much more rapidly in response to a nutrient down shift than to a nutrient up shift, transcript synthesis rather than degradation likely plays a role in the regulatory response