43 research outputs found

    Intercalation of sulfur in epitaxial graphene on ruthenium(0001) studied by means of scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy

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    This thesis studies the interaction of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) with graphene epitaxially grown on the basal plane of ruthenium (Ru(0001)). Sample growth and characterization is carried out by means of scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/STS) in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. Part of the characterization was done at low temperature, and complementary UHV characterization techniques were also used. Epitaxial graphene on Ru(0001) (graphene/Ru(0001)) is grown by catalytic decomposition of ethylene in UHV conditions. Graphene/Ru(0001) shows a strong interaction between graphene and its substrate that results in a topographic and electronic modulation emerging as a moiré pattern due to the lattice mismatch between both materials. The resulting graphene layer is strongly bound to Ru(0001) and highly doped (n-type), losing its semi-metallic character and its characteristic linear dispersion relation. STM images reveal that exposing graphene/Ru(0001) to H2S results in the intercalation of sulfur between graphene and its substrate. The experiments suggest that intercalation occurs via the formation of local defects on the graphene’s surface. The intercalated sulfur atoms are structured forming different reconstructions which are described and analyzed. In order to complement the geometrical description of the intercalated sulfur layer, experiments on the adsorption of sulfur on Ru(0001) have been carried out. The different reconstructions of the intercalated system alter the properties of the graphene layer on top. The surface density of sulfur atoms and their geometrical characteristics reduce the interaction between graphene and Ru(0001) in different ways, as is evident from the corrugation reduction of the moiré in STM experiments. In order to obtain a deeper insight on the influence of the geometrical configurations of sulfur on the system’s properties we performed low-temperature STS experiments. They show the emergence of a series of evenly spaced resonances close to the Fermi level after H2S exposure. The shift of these resonances towards higher energies with increasing sulfur density suggest the reduction of the doping of the intercalated graphene with respect to graphene/Ru(0001). The origin of this phenomenon is not clear, but some possible explanations are suggested. Lastly, atomic manipulation experiments were carried out using the STM tip. When the density of the intercalated layer is low enough to allow for mobility of the sulfur atoms, geometric patterns were drawn on the surface by moving the intercalated atoms in such a way that the strong graphene-Ru interaction is recovered at specific places

    Increasing the extraction efficiency of quantum light from 2D materials

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    Direct bandgap 2D semiconductor materials such as monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), show great promise in optoelectronic devices enabling exciting new technologies such as ultra-thin quantum light LED’s [1]. These structures can have incredible advantages, enabling almost seamless integration into conventional silicon structures. However, extracting light out of these structures can be a challenge, often requiring costly and time consuming processing e.g. engineered waveguides or cavities [2]. Furthermore none of these methods allow you to observe the light directly, therefore are unhelpful in certain applications, such as an optical version of a quantum unique device [3]. We have previously demonstrated that epoxy based solid immersion lenses can be used to increase light out of semiconductor nanostructures. We furthered this idea to see if they could be used to increase the light out of monolayer TMDC materials; and investigate how the epoxy-2D material interface affects the emission. Our studies revealed that a SIL can greatly enhance the photoluminescence of WSe2 by up to 6x (more than theory predicts for a SIL of this shape), without effecting the wavelength (figure 1). However we also found that the epoxy appears to reduce the emission of the MoS2, suggesting that there could be doping effects due to the epoxy. Overall this method shows great promise as a cheap, and scalable method for enhancing the efficiency of low intensity WSe2 based devices

    Growth and characterization of 7,7,8,8-tetracyano-quinodimethane crystals on chemical vapor deposition graphene

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    Chemical functionalization of graphene could pave the way for favorably modifying its already remarkable properties. Organic molecules have been utilized to this end as a way to alter graphene’s structural, chemical, electrical, optical and even magnetic properties. One such promising organic molecule is 7,7,8,8-tetracyano-quinodimethane (TCNQ), a strong electron acceptor which has been shown to be an effective p-dopant of graphene. This study explores the thermal evaporation of TCNQ onto graphene transferred onto SiO2/Si substrates. Using two different home-made thermal evaporators, a wide range of TCNQ growth regimes are explored, from thin films to crystals . The resulting graphene/TCNQ structure is characterized via optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). TCNQ films are found to be comprised of TCNQ and the oxidized product of TCNQ, α,α-dicyano-p-toluoylcyanide (DCTC), which confirms the electron charge transfer from graphene to the TCNQ films. AFM measurements of these films show that after forming a rather smooth layer covering the graphene surface, small clusters start to form. For higher TCNQ coverage, the clusters agglomerate, becoming quite large in size and forming ripples or wrinkles across the surface

    Photonic crystals for enhanced light extraction from 2D materials

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    In recent years, a range of two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have been studied, and remarkable optical and electronic characteristics have been demonstrated. Furthermore, the weak interlayer Van der Waals interaction allows TMDs to adapt to a range of substrates. Unfortunately, the photons emitted from these TMD monolayers are difficult to efficiently collect into simple optics, reducing the practicality of these materials. The realization of on-chip optical devices for quantum information applications requires structures that maximize optical extraction efficiently whilst also minimizing substrate loss. In this work we propose a photonic crystal cavity based on silicon rods that allows maximal spatial and spectral coupling between TMD monolayers and the cavity mode. Finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulations revealed that TMDs coupled to this type of cavity have highly directional emission towards the collection optics, as well as up to 400% enhancement in luminescence intensity, compared to monolayers on flat substrates. We consider realistic fabrication tolerances and discuss the extent of the achievable spatial alignment with the cavity mode field maxima

    Increasing quantum light extraction from TMDC's

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    Much of the recent explosion of research into 2D semiconductor materials has focused on direct bandgap materials such as monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), which show great promise in optoelectronic devices such as ultra-thin LEDs [1, 2]. Extraction of light out of these structures can be enhanced in the near field through the integration of these monolayers into waveguides, cavities, or photonic crystals [3]; however these methods are not ideal as they require costly and time consuming processing. Furthermore none of these methods allow you to observe the light directly, therefore are unhelpful in certain applications, such as quantum unique devices [4]. The research we present demonstrates a solution to this problem by encapsulating a range of two-dimensional materials in Solid Immersion Lenses (SILs), dynamically-shaped from UV cure epoxy. We show that the advantages of using SILs formed in this way are numerous, with the most prominent being they can be deterministically placed and directly tuned, to ensure the extraction efficiency is maximised. We will also present detailed photoluminescence maps showing how the reduction of laser spot size caused by focusing through a SIL can allow for very detailed mapping of WSe2 multilayer structures

    Innovative patterning method for modifying few-layer MoS2 device geometries

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    When mechanically exfoliated two-dimensional (2D) materials are used for device applications, their properties strongly depend on the geometry and number of layers present in the flake. In general, these properties cannot be modified once a device has been fabricated out of an exfoliated flake. In this work we present a novel nano-patterning method for 2D material based devices, Pulsed eBeam Gas Assisted Patterning (PEBGAP), that allows us to fine tune their geometry once the device fabrication steps have been completed

    Increasing the light extraction and longevity of TMDC monolayers using liquid formed micro-lenses

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    The recent discovery of semiconducting two-dimensional materials is predicted to lead to the introduction of a series of revolutionary optoelectronic components that are just a few atoms thick. Key remaining challenges for producing practical devices from these materials lie in improving the coupling of light into and out of single atomic layers, and in making these layers robust to the influence of their surrounding environment. We present a solution to tackle both of these problems simultaneously, by deterministically placing an epoxy based micro-lens directly onto the materials’ surface. We show that this approach enhances the photoluminescence of tungsten diselenide (WSe2) monolayers by up to 300%, and nearly doubles the imaging resolution of the system. Furthermore, this solution fully encapsulates the monolayer, preventing it from physical damage and degradation in air. The optical solution we have developed could become a key enabling technology for the mass production of ultra-thin optical devices, such as quantum light emitting diodes

    Resonant-Tunnelling Diodes as PUF Building Blocks

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    Resonant-Tunnelling Diodes (RTDs) have been proposed as building blocks for Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs). In this paper we show how the unique RTD current-voltage (I-V) spectrum can be translated into a robust digital representation. We analyse 130 devices and show that RTDs are a viable PUF building block

    Extracting random numbers from quantum tunnelling through a single diode

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    Random number generation is crucial in many aspects of everyday life, as online security and privacy depend ultimately on the quality of random numbers. Many current implementations are based on pseudo-random number generators, but information security requires true random numbers for sensitive applications like key generation in banking, defence or even social media. True random number generators are systems whose outputs cannot be determined, even if their internal structure and response history are known. Sources of quantum noise are thus ideal for this application due to their intrinsic uncertainty. In this work, we propose using resonant tunnelling diodes as practical true random number generators based on a quantum mechanical effect. The output of the proposed devices can be directly used as a random stream of bits or can be further distilled using randomness extraction algorithms, depending on the application
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