Game theoretic approach in routing protocols for wireless mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are becoming popular as a means of providing communication among a group of people. Because of self-configuring and self-organizing characteristics, MANETs can be deployed quickly. There is no infrastructure defined in the network, therefore all of the participating nodes relay packets for other nodes and perform routing if necessary. Because of the limitations in wireless transmission range, communication links could be multi-hop. Routing protocol is the most important element of MANET. Routing protocols for MANET can broadly be classified as proactive routing protocol and reactive routing protocol. In proactive routing protocols like Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV), mobile nodes periodically exchange routing information among themselves. Hence proactive routing protocols generate high overhead messages in the network. On the other hand, reactive routing protocols like Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) work on-demand. Hence reactive routing protocols generate fewer number of overhead messages in the network compared to proactive routing protocols. But reactive routing protocols use a global search mechanism called flooding during the route discovery process. By flooding mechanism a source node can discover multiple routes to a destination. Flooding generates a large number of overhead packets in the network and is the root cause of scaling problem of reactive routing protocols. Hierarchical Dynamic Source Routing (HDSR) protocol has been proposed in this dissertation to solve that scaling problem. The DSR protocol has been modified and optimized to implement HDSR protocol. HDSR protocol reduces the flooding problem of reactive routing protocols by introducing hierarchy among nodes. Two game theoretic models, Forwarding Dilemma Game (FDG) and Forwarding Game Routing Protocol (FGRP), is proposed to minimize the \u27flooding\u27 effect by restricting nodes that should participate in route discovery process based on their status. Both FDG and FGRP protocols reduce overhead packet and improve network performances in terms of delay packet delivery ratio and throughput. Both protocols were implemented in AODV and the resulting protocol outperformed AODV in our NS-2 simulations. A thorough connectivity analysis was also performed for FDG and FGRP to ensure that these protocols do not introduce disconnectivity. Surprisingly, both FDG and FGRP showed better connectivity compared to AODV in moderate to high node density networks

Game theoretic approach in routing protocol for wireless ad hoc networks

This paper introduces a game theoretic method, called forwarding dilemma game (FDG), which controls routing overhead in dense multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks. The players of the game are the wireless nodes with set of strategies {Forward, Not forward}. The game is played whenever an arbitrary node in the network receives a flooding packet. In FDG, every player needs to know the number of players of the game. That is why a neighbor discovery protocol (NDP) is introduced. In order for NDP to function, a field is attached to the flooding packets (routing overhead packets). The mixed strategy Nash equilibrium is used as a solution for the FDG. This provides the probability that the flooding packet would be forwarded by the receiver node. FDG with NDP is implemented in AODV protocol in Network Simulator NS-2 to verify its performance with simulations. FDG with NDP improves performance of the AODV compared to the same network with only AODV protocol in moderate and high node densities. FDG can be applied to any routing protocol that uses flooding in the route discovery phase

Influence of wheat bran as a silage additive on chemical composition, in situ degradability and in vitro gas production of citrus pulp silage

The effect of wheat bran (WB) as a silage additive on chemical composition, in situ degradability and in vitro gas production of citrus pulp silage (CPS) was investigated. The whole fresh citrus pulp was manually chopped and used as untreated or treated with 6, 12, or 18 g WB/kg fresh citrus pulp for ensiling. The data were analyzed in a completely randomized design that showed experimental treatments had no significant effect on DM% of silages but with increasing WB, crude protein (CP%) linearly and quadratically increased (P < 0.05). Ammonia nitrogen, ether extract (EE%), ash% and pH were similar among treatments (P > 0.05). Result showed that with increasing WB, NDF concentration linearly increased (P < 0.05) but acid detergent fiber (ADF) concentration linearly and quadratically decreased among treatments (P < 0.05). Aerobic stability of silage exhibited a negative linear and quadratic relationship (P < 0.05), with increasing the level of WB. Data of flige point displayed that all treatments had very good quality. Data of in situ degradability indicated that soluble degradable fraction (a) was significantly higher in control group (P < 0.05) and with the addition of WB to silage, (a) parameter significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Non-soluble degradation fraction (b) was not affected by different treatments (P > 0.05). The fractional degradation rate (c) with increasing of WB significantly increased (P < 0.05). Potential degradability (a + b) of silages with increasing of WB linearly decreased (P < 0.05). Effective degradability (ED) of silages was not affected by different treatments (P > 0.05). Potential gas production (b) and fractional rate of gas production (c) demonstrated a linear and quadratic relationship (P < 0.05) with increasing WB. The organic matter digestibility (OMD), net energy (NEl), metabolisable energy (ME) and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) were significantly different between control group and treatments with WB (P < 0.05). This data suggest that the addition of WB to CPS can improve the nutritional value of citrus pulp silage without any adverse effects on this by-product.Keywords: Aerobic stability, citrus pulp silage, silage additive, degradabilit

EVALUATION OF NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF SOME NUT HULLS AS FEEDSTUFFS FOR RUMINANTS BY in vitro GAS PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE

The current study was conducted to determine the chemical composition and gas production properties of different nut hulls that were included to almond, peanut and walnut hulls. In this experiment, in a completely randomized design, three different nut hulls, after drying, were ground to pass a 2 mm sieve and used for determination of chemical composition and in vitro gas production. Results showed that there were no differences among treatments for DM and EE level (P>0.05). But, the CP, NDF, ADF, and Ash content in peanut hulls was significantly higher than almond and walnut hulls (P<0.05). Also, the hemicellulose content of almond hulls was higher than peanut and walnut hulls (P<0.05). The volume of gas produced during 96 h for almond hulls was significantly higher than peanut and walnut hulls (P<0.05). Also, the potential gas production (b) of almond hulls was higher than other treatments (P<0.05). But, the constant rate of gas production (c) was same for all treatments (P>0.05). Besides, the OMD, NEl, ME, and SCFA content of almond hulls was significantly higher than peanut and walnut hulls (P<0.05). Overall, it seems that of these agricultural by-products, although all three have high levels of fiber, but the nutritional value of almond hulls was higher than other hulls

The effects of addition of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids on the quality of bovine chilled and frozen-thawed sperm

This study was aimed to investigate the effects of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids on the characteristics of bovine chilled and frozen-thawed semen. For this purpose, oil containing different levels of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids were added to semen extender. To emulsify the oil in semen extender, polyethylene glycol (PEG) was added as a suitable solvent and the solution was finally sonicated. Five proven Holstein bulls were randomly selected and their ejaculates were collected using an artificial vagina. Groups were designed as control, treatments 1, 2, 3 and 4. The control group contained only the basic extender (Tris-citrate buffer, egg yolk and glycerol) without any additives. In treatment 1, only 5% PEG was added to the diluent; while in treatments 2, 3 and 4 different concentrations of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids (1.0, 2.5 and 5.0%) in combination with PEG were added to the basic extender. After dilution, the semen samples were packaged into 0.5 ml straws, a process that was followed by cooling the semen straws. Motility, viability and morphology of semen samples were evaluated after 24 and 48 h of storage in refrigerator (5 ˚C) or after one month of storage in the liquid nitrogen. Immotility was increased and all the other parameters including motility, viability and morphology were significantly decreased in all the groups compared with fresh samples during cold storage and freezing-thawing. Our results demonstrated the following: 1) PEG has significant detrimental effects, especially on the sperm motility; 2) addition of omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acids could not improve the sperm motility in chilled storage condition and after freezing-thawing; and 3) omega-3, 6, 9 fatty acidscould not also attenuate the other deleterious effects of PEG. In conclusion, our findings reveal that addition of these fatty acids to the semen extender does not enhance the resistance of the bovine sperm membrane to cooling and freezing-thawing and that further studies are required to find suitable candidate compounds that can boost the quality of semen that is chilled and freeze-thawed

Effect of using different levels of pistachio by-products silage on composition and blood parameters of Holstein dairy cows

The goal of this research was to study about the effect of using pistachio hulls silage in cow's nutrition. The initial experiment was about the effect of several feed additives on chemical and fermentative characteristic of pistachio hulls silages. This experiment was designed with 5 treatments and 4 replications in each treatment in a complete randomized design. Additives for preparing pistachio hulls silage were in the sequence of 1.5% citrus pulp (in base of dry matter), 1.5% ground barley, 1.5% beet pulp, 1.5% molasses and one control treatment without any additives. Silages were sampled for chemical analysis and fermentative characteristics. Results of the analysis showed no significant variation between the treatments in respect of ash. In the second experiment, the application of pistachio hulls silage in the nutrition of lactating cows was studied. Eight lactating cows in one Latin square design experiment were used. Treatments included various amounts of pistachio hulls silage replaced with corn silage (in base of dry mater). The results show no significant variation between the treatments in milk, blood, rumen factors and digestibility factors that can show pistachio hulls silage that can be replaced with corn silage up to 15% (%dry matter) in dairy cows ration without any significant variation in cows production.Key words: Dairy cattle's, milk production, pistachio by-product, silage, tannin

Effect of dietary crude protein level on the performance and apparent digestibility of Iranian Saanen kids

The effects of increasing dietary levels of crude protein (CP) on growth, feed intake, feed efficiency and nutrient apparent digestibility on Iranian Saanen kids were studied. 24 Iranian Saanen weaned kids who were 86 ± 3 days old with live weight of 9 ± 03 kg were used in a completely randomized design. There were three treatments (n = 8 kids per treatment). The dietary treatments contained 35% lucerne hay with 65% concentrate supplement that consisted of 14, 15 and 16% CP for T1, T2 and T3, respectively (based on dry matter). The kids were housed in individual metabolic cages. Daily intake and body weight gain were determined and feed efficiency was calculated. Rumen fluid was collected by stomach tube and pH was immediately measured. The results show that, with increasing CP level in the diet, feed intake and body weight gain increased numerically, which was not significant (P> 0.5). Feed efficiency improved with increasing CP level. The effects of treatments on apparent digestibility were not significant (P> 0.5); but, ammonia-N and pH significantly increased with increasing CP level (P<0.5). No significant differences were observed between treatments for body measurement. Therefore, the results of this study show that increasing CP level from 14 to 16% improved performance in the Saanen kids.Keywords: Saanen kids, crude protein level, treatment, performanceAfrican Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 12(26), pp. 4202-420

The Effect of Salinity Stress on Seed Germination of \u3cem\u3eAgropyron elongatum\u3c/em\u3e

Successful seedling establishment depends on the frequen-cy and the amount of precipitation as well as on the ability of the seed species to germinate and grow while soil mois-ture and osmotic potentials decrease. Germination and seedling characteristics are the most valuable criteria for selecting salt tolerance in plants. Salinity stress can reduce seed germination through osmotic effects (Jamil et al. 2006). Agropyron is a perennial grass genus with 19 dif-ferent species reported. This genus has wide adaptation and can be grown in different climates. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of salinity stress on the germination of Agropyron elongatum seed under laboratory conditions

Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Seed Germination Traits of \u3cem\u3eBromus inermis\u3c/em\u3e

Ionizing radiation technology and in particular gamma radiation is developing as a useful treatment in crop production. Gamma rays cause different physiological and morphological responses in cells and tissues that appear as an increase in germination speed, germination capacity and growth of the leaves (Amjad and Anjum 2007). Several reports on the stimulatory affects on plant growth when exposed to irradiation techniques with radioactive rays at low doses are available (Charbaji and Nabulsi 1999; Moussa 2006). Seed treatment with low doses of gamma rays resulted in a significant increase in germination traits, plant vigor and yield attributes of wheat (Melki and Marouani 2010). High doses of gamma radiation produced deleterious effects, such as poor growth (Amjad, and Anjum 2007). Seedling establishment is a critical stage in the plant life cycle that is the result of successful germination (Liu et al. 2008)