The Paradox of Urban Greening: Does it Harm the Very People Who Need it the Most?

Urban greening and sustainability approaches are well accepted methods for improving the urban environment and combating the climate crisis. Cleaning up potentially contaminated lands and bringing them back into constructive public use is one of the benefits of greening. However, greening efforts may have unintended consequences, resulting in adverse social and economic impacts to the existing residents, who are often the most vulnerable urban populations. Spatial analyses of case study examples show that greening can spur “green gentrification.” Measures can be taken to integrate social equity objectives into urban sustainability planning, to mitigate gentrification, and to improve equitable distribution of environmental benefits

The Collapse of Place: Derelict Land, Deprivation, and Health Inequality in Glasgow, Scotland

The population of Glasgow, Scotland has very poor health, compared to Scotland as a whole and the rest of the U.K., and even compared to other post-industrial cities with similar levels of deprivation and worklessness. This research maps and analyzes several health indicators to examine health inequities within Glasgow and explore the spatial correspondence between areas of poor health, high deprivation, and proximity to derelict land, much of which is contaminated from past industrial uses. People in high deprivation areas are significantly more likely to be hospitalized for respiratory disease and cancer; have low birth weight infants; and for men to have much lower life expectancy than those not living in the high deprivation areas, indicating substantial health inequities within Glasgow. They are also much more likely to live in close proximity to derelict land. A methodology is described for creating an index (PARDLI - Priority Areas for Re-use of Derelict Land Index), combining scores for these health, deprivation, and environmental variables. The Index is used to select and prioritize communities for resource allocation and planning efforts, and is transferrable to other locations. Potential strategies are outlined for re-using the derelict land for the communities’ public health benefit and neighborhood regeneration, including urban agriculture/community gardens, urban forestation, active and passive recreation areas, and linkage to existing open space networks and natural areas. This research is part of a larger project comparing Glasgow and New York City regarding the relationship between environmental health justice and aspects of the built environment

\u27At-risk\u27 places: inequaties in the distribution of environmental stressors and prescription rates of mental health medications in Glasgow, Scotland

Using geospatial analytical methods, this study examines the association between one aspect of the built environment, namely, the concentration of vacant and derelict land (VDL), and the prevalence of mental health disorders (using the proxy variable of mental health medication prescription rates) in Glasgow, Scotland. This study builds on our previous research, which demonstrated the spatial correspondence between the locations of VDL in Glasgow and several physical health outcomes. Numerous studies of other locales have found similar correspondence between different elements of the built environment and various health outcomes. This is the first study of its kind to look at the spatial concentration of vacant and derelict land in relation to mental health, socio-economic indicators, environmental justice, and health inequities. The findings of this study demonstrate an inequity with respect to the distribution of vacant and derelict land, as confirmed by Pearson correlations between VDL density and deprivation (r = .521, p \u3c .001). This suggests that many deprived communities are disproportionately burdened with environmental impacts and psycho-social stressors associated with this land use. Regression analyses show a significant positive association between the proportion of the population who were prescribed medication for anxiety, depression, or psychosis and the density of vacant and derelict land while adjusting for socio-demographic characteristics. This indicates that areas with higher VDL densities tend to exhibit higher rates of mental health issues. Based on these findings, strategies for constructive re-use of VDL are proposed

Expulsive Greening: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Resilience-Era Green Gentrification in Brooklyn, New York

This project analyzes the impacts green gentrification in Brooklyn by evaluating the spatial coincidence between gentrification rates and urban greening from 2010 to 2020. Assets formed under the NYC Green Infrastructure Program were chosen as a proxy for urban greening to represent urban greening within the 21st-century climate change resilience paradigm of development. Methods: This is a mixed method approach to a natural experiment. First, five indexes measuring variations of economic and demographic conditions related to gentrification were applied to Brooklyn for comparative analysis: NOAA’s Social Vulnerability Indicators of Gentrification Pressure, The NYC Heat Vulnerability Index, The Small Area Index of Gentrification, Typologies of Gentrification and Displacement, and The Housing Risk Chart. Then, for each index, a point-in-polygon count vector analysis was conducted using GIS software to determine the prevalence of green infrastructure assets within the varying gentrification categories. Then, using the method of dialectical materialism, close readings of theoretical, governmental, and corporate literature were used to examine the forces driving development practices during that time. Results: Gentrification varies per spatial unit with each index application, owing to varying index factors. However, the highest socioeconomic, gentrification, and ecological risk hot spots, regardless of index used, tend to be in northern Brooklyn, close to the border of Queens, while cold spots tend to be located in southern Brooklyn. Despite variability in gentrification hot and cold spots, every hot spot was highly associated with green stormwater infrastructure installed through the Green Infrastructure Program, while cold spots largely had few assets installed in their boundaries. A review of the quantitative results against the reviewed literature indicate that NYC’s “green” planning and policies are related to ongoing green gentrification trends in the US

Brownsfields to Greenfields: Environmental Justice Versus Environmental Gentrification

Gentrification is a growing concern in many urban areas, due to the potential for displacement of lower-income and other vulnerable populations. This process can be accelerated when neighborhood “greening” projects are undertaken via governmental or private investor efforts, resulting in a phenomenon termed environmental or “green” gentrification. Vacant land in lower-income areas is often improved by the existing community through the creation of community gardens, but this contributes to these greening efforts and paradoxically may spur gentrification and subsequent displacement of the gardens’ stewards and neighbors. “Is proximity to community gardens in less affluent neighborhoods associated with an increased likelihood of gentrification?” Using Brooklyn, New York as a case study, we examined this question using Geographic Information Systems and two spatial methods: a census block group proximity analysis, and a hot spot analysis, to determine the potential impact of proximity to community gardens in lower-income areas. The results of the analyses suggest that proximity to community gardens is associated with significant increases in per capita income over the five years study period, which is indicative of areas undergoing gentrification. This has implications for environmental justice because existing lower-income residents are likely to be displaced after their community is improved environmentally

Mapping environmental injustices: pitfalls and potential of geographic information systems in assessing environmental health and equity.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used increasingly to map instances of environmental injustice, the disproportionate exposure of certain populations to environmental hazards. Some of the technical and analytic difficulties of mapping environmental injustice are outlined in this article, along with suggestions for using GIS to better assess and predict environmental health and equity. I examine 13 GIS-based environmental equity studies conducted within the past decade and use a study of noxious land use locations in the Bronx, New York, to illustrate and evaluate the differences in two common methods of determining exposure extent and the characteristics of proximate populations. Unresolved issues in mapping environmental equity and health include lack of comprehensive hazards databases; the inadequacy of current exposure indices; the need to develop realistic methodologies for determining the geographic extent of exposure and the characteristics of the affected populations; and the paucity and insufficiency of health assessment data. GIS have great potential to help us understand the spatial relationship between pollution and health. Refinements in exposure indices; the use of dispersion modeling and advanced proximity analysis; the application of neighborhood-scale analysis; and the consideration of other factors such as zoning and planning policies will enable more conclusive findings. The environmental equity studies reviewed in this article found a disproportionate environmental burden based on race and/or income. It is critical now to demonstrate correspondence between environmental burdens and adverse health impacts--to show the disproportionate effects of pollution rather than just the disproportionate distribution of pollution sources

Brownfields to Greenfields: Environmental Justice Versus Environmental Gentrification

Gentrification is a growing concern in many urban areas, due to the potential for displacement of lower-income and other vulnerable populations. This process can be accelerated when neighborhood “greening” projects are undertaken via governmental or private investor efforts, resulting in a phenomenon termed environmental or “green” gentrification. Vacant land in lower-income areas is often improved by the existing community through the creation of community gardens, but this contributes to these greening efforts and paradoxically may spur gentrification and subsequent displacement of the gardens’ stewards and neighbors. “Is proximity to community gardens in less affluent neighborhoods associated with an increased likelihood of gentrification?” Using Brooklyn, New York as a case study, we examined this question using Geographic Information Systems and two spatial methods: a census block group proximity analysis, and a hot spot analysis, to determine the potential impact of proximity to community gardens in lower-income areas. The results of the analyses suggest that proximity to community gardens is associated with significant increases in per capita income over the five years study period, which is indicative of areas undergoing gentrification. This has implications for environmental justice because existing lower-income residents are likely to be displaced after their community is improved environmentally

Characterization of Urban Agricultural Practices and Gardeners’ Perceptions in Bronx Community Gardens, New York City.

This study investigates urban agricultural practices in the community gardens in the Bronx, New York City, United States, due to their historical role of helping bring peace and a sense of community to areas that suffered from violence and social injustice. Through semi-structured interviews with the gardeners, visits to observe the gardens, and a spatial analysis of community socio-demographic characteristics using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), we characterize the community gardens visited, and survey the gardeners’ perceptions regarding the benefits and challenges that are involved in the activity. The GISc analysis results showed that there is a much higher rate of poverty in block group populations living within a quarter mile of the community gardens and there is also a significantly higher Hispanic population in block groups living close to the gardens than those further away. The community gardens visited can be characterized as places where the activity of growing plants is a way to socialize within the community, a source of fresh vegetables and fruits, a way to beautify the neighborhood, and a place for education. Regarding the gardeners’ perceptions, it was unanimous that in the garden they enjoy being together with family and community, appreciating nature, and receiving therapeutic benefits that gardening brings. However, some have spoken about their fears of losing the gardens, since they are still not protected by the City, and are prone to take-over by developers

Community Gardens: An Exploration of Urban Agriculture in the Bronx, New York City

Urban agriculture/community gardening in the Bronx has multiple roles, including health-promoting, economic, environmental, and cultural. These roles are particularly important in light of urban sustainability issues and environmental justice concerns, such as differential access to open space, recreation, and fresh produce in poorer communities and communities of color, as well as differential environmental and health impacts of unsustainable practices on these communities. The gardens generally help promote a sense of place - a focus for communities - which often have little access to safe parks or recreational space within their neighborhoods, and create a center for community cultural and educational activities. The Bronx currently has about 175 community gardens administered by Operation Green Thumb, as well as a number of community gardens operated by non-profit entities, such as the Parks Council, and community gardens on private property. On average, the Bronx community gardens use about 75% of their land for growing vegetables, and many gardens supply the farming families and others in the neighborhood with much of their vegetables for the year. This study investigates urban agricultural practices in the Bronx to assess how community gardens improve quality-of-life for the proximate populations. Through semi-structured interviews of the gardeners, visits to observe the gardens, and a spatial analysis of community socio-demographic characteristics using Geographic Information System (GIS), we examine the social, political, cultural, environmental, food security, and health benefits of community gardening. This is part of a larger study comparing urban agricultural practices in the Bronx and Curitiba, Brazil

Not Just A Walk in The Park: methodological improvements for determining environmental justice implications of park access in New York City for the promotion of physical activity

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that access to parks in New York City is not equitable across racial and ethnic categories. It builds on previous research that has linked access to parks and open space with increased physical activity, which in turn may reduce the risk for adverse health outcomes related to obesity. Systematic patterns of uneven access to parks might help to explain disparities in these health outcomes across sociodemographic populations that are not fully explained by individual-level risk factors and health behaviors, and therefore access to parks becomes an environmental justice issue. This study is designed to shed light on the “unpatterned inequities” of park distributions identified in previous studies of New York City park access. It uses a combination of network analysis and a cadastral-based expert dasymetric system (CEDS) to estimate the racial/ethnic composition of populations within a reasonable walking distance of 400m from parks. The distance to the closest park, number of parks within walking distance, amount of accessible park space, and number of physical activity sites are then evaluated across racial/ethnic categories, and are compared to the city-wide populations using odds ratios. The odds ratios revealed patterns that at first glance appear to contradict the notion of distributional inequities. However, discussion of the results points to the need for reassessing what is meant by “access” to more thoroughly consider the aspects of parks that are most likely to contribute to physical activity and positive health outcomes