596 research outputs found
Boosting insights in insurance tariff plans with tree-based machine learning methods
Pricing actuaries typically operate within the framework of generalized
linear models (GLMs). With the upswing of data analytics, our study puts focus
on machine learning methods to develop full tariff plans built from both the
frequency and severity of claims. We adapt the loss functions used in the
algorithms such that the specific characteristics of insurance data are
carefully incorporated: highly unbalanced count data with excess zeros and
varying exposure on the frequency side combined with scarce, but potentially
long-tailed data on the severity side. A key requirement is the need for
transparent and interpretable pricing models which are easily explainable to
all stakeholders. We therefore focus on machine learning with decision trees:
starting from simple regression trees, we work towards more advanced ensembles
such as random forests and boosted trees. We show how to choose the optimal
tuning parameters for these models in an elaborate cross-validation scheme, we
present visualization tools to obtain insights from the resulting models and
the economic value of these new modeling approaches is evaluated. Boosted trees
outperform the classical GLMs, allowing the insurer to form profitable
portfolios and to guard against potential adverse risk selection
Choice of Law Clauses in Consumer Contracts: A Comparative Study of American and E.E.C. Law
The selection of the law applicable to a certain relationship may seem to be the sole purpose of choice of law rules. However, it is questionable whether this choice should be made independent from the content of the various laws available. The selection of the most appropriate law cannot disregard the social, economic and political values that form the basis of substantive rules. In modern legal systems, social values such as consumer protection are recognized to a growing extent.
The present work explores the concept of choice of law – namely party autonomy with a focus on consumer contracts in the U.S. and the E.E.C. The present work compares choice of law conflicts in four U.S. states: Illinois, Georgia, California and New York with the 1980 E.E.C. Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. This thesis concludes that choice of law has an important function in preventing the evasion of a large part of consumer protective provisions
Neural networks for insurance pricing with frequency and severity data: a benchmark study from data preprocessing to technical tariff
Insurers usually turn to generalized linear models for modelling claim
frequency and severity data. Due to their success in other fields, machine
learning techniques are gaining popularity within the actuarial toolbox. Our
paper contributes to the literature on frequency-severity insurance pricing
with machine learning via deep learning structures. We present a benchmark
study on four insurance data sets with frequency and severity targets in the
presence of multiple types of input features. We compare in detail the
performance of: a generalized linear model on binned input data, a
gradient-boosted tree model, a feed-forward neural network (FFNN), and the
combined actuarial neural network (CANN). Our CANNs combine a baseline
prediction established with a GLM and GBM, respectively, with a neural network
correction. We explain the data preprocessing steps with specific focus on the
multiple types of input features typically present in tabular insurance data
sets, such as postal codes, numeric and categorical covariates. Autoencoders
are used to embed the categorical variables into the neural network and we
explore their potential advantages in a frequency-severity setting. Finally, we
construct global surrogate models for the neural nets' frequency and severity
models. These surrogates enable the translation of the essential insights
captured by the FFNNs or CANNs to GLMs. As such, a technical tariff table
results that can easily be deployed in practice
The Updated ICRC Commentary on the Second Geneva Convention: Demystifying the Law of Armed Conflict at Sea
Since their publication in the 1950s and 1980s respectively, the Commentaries on the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 have become a major reference for the application and interpretation of those treaties. The International Committee of the Red Cross, together with a team of renowned experts, is currently updating these Commentaries in order to document developments and provide up-to-date interpretations of the treaty texts. Following a brief overview of the methodology and process of the update as well as a historical background to the Second Geneva Convention, this article addresses the scope of applicability of the Convention, the type of vessels it protects (in particular hospital ships and coastal rescue craft), and its relationship with other sources of international humanitarian law and international law conferring protection to persons in distress at sea. It also outlines differences and commonalities between the First and the Second Conventions, including how these have been reflected in the updated Commentary on the Second Convention. Finally, the article highlights certain substantive obligations under the Convention and how the updated Commentary addresses some of the interpretive questions they raise
Cyber warfare: applying the principle of distinction in an interconnected space
While the rules of the jus in bello are generally operative in cyberspace, it appears to be problematic to apply the fundamental principle of distinction because of the systemic interconnection of military and civilian infrastructure in the cyber realm. In this regard, the application of the accepted legal definition of military objectives will make various components of the civilian cyber infrastructure a legitimate military objective. In order to avoid serious repercussions for the civilian population that might follow from this inherent interconnectedness, different concepts are analysed that could provide potential solutions for a clearer separation of legitimate military targets and protected civilian installations and networks. The approaches discussed range from the exemption of central cyber infrastructure components that serve important civilian functions, to the creation of ‘digital safe havens’ and possible precautionary obligations regarding the segregation of military and civilian networks. As a solution, the authors propose a dynamic interpretation of the wording ‘damage to civilian objects’ within the principle of proportionality of Article 51(5)(b) of Additional Protocol I, an interpretation that would comprise the degradation of the functionality of systems that serve important civilian functions
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