Probing the accretion physics of Sagittarius A*

Das Galaktische Zentrum und das darin befindende massereiche Schwarze Loch Sagitarrius A* (Sgr A*) stellt einen der exotischsten Orte des Universums dar, welcher der Menschheit bekannt ist. In dieser Dissertation untersuche ich zwei verschiedene Aspekte des Galaktischen Zentrum: den Akkretionsfluss in der direkten Umgebung von Sgr A*, sowie die Verteilung der jungen Sterne, die sich in der unmittelbaren Nachbarschaft des Schwarzen Loches befinden. Die in dieser Disseration vorgestellte Arbeit hat zu drei neuartigen Beobachtungen der spektralen Energieverteilung (englisch: Spectral Energy Distribution, SED) von Sgr A* geführt, welche ich in den ersten drei Kapitel vorstelle. Im letzten Kapitel der Thesis stelle ich meine Resultate zur Population von jungen Sterne im Galaktischen Zentrum vor. Das erste Kapitel handelt von dem gleichzeitigen Nachweis von Sgr A* in zwei Ferninfrarotbeobachtungsbändern bei Wellenlängen von 160 μm und 100 μm. Dies sind die ersten Beobachtungen von Sgr A* in diesem Wellenlängenbereich und wurden mit der PACS Kamera on-board des Weltraumteleskops Herschel aufgezeichnet. Die Messung wurden mit Hilfe einer maßgeschneiderten Datenreduktion ermöglicht, die eine differentielle Flussmessungen im Ferninfroten mit einem bisher unerreichten Rauschpegel erlaubt. Dies führt zum ersten Nachweis des variablen Flusses mit einer Signifikanz von 4.5σ bei 160 μm und 1.6σ bei 100 μm. Die Entdeckung des variablen Flusses bestätigt, dass die SED im Sub-mm-Bereich ihr Maximum erreicht und ermöglicht die Bestimmung der Elektronendichte, der Magnetfeldstärke und der Elektronentemperatur im Akkretionsfluss. In Kombination mit modernen ALMA-Beobachtungen von Sgr A* deuten diese Ergebnisse auf niedrigere Sub-mm-Flüsse hin als bis dato angenommen wurde. Die Messergebnisse erfordern aus diesem Grund höhere Elektronentemperaturen im Akkretionsfluss. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass der Akkretionsfluss im Sub-mm- und teilweise auch im mm-Bereich optisch dünn ist. Im zweiten Kapitel nutze ich die ersten drei Jahre der interferometrischen GRAVITY-Beobachtungen, welche am Very Large Telescope Interferometer durchgefuehrt wurden, um die Flussverteilung von Sgr A* im Nahinfraroten zu untersuchen. Aus den GRAVITY-Daten erstelle ich die erste kohärente Flussmessung von Sgr A*, die 2019 mit dem neuartigen Dual-Beam-Beobachtungsmodus beobachtet wurde. Zusätzlich, verwende ich Lichtkurven aus den Jahren 2017 und 2018, die bereits in der Literatur veröffentlicht wurden. Aufgrund der sehr hohen räumlichen Auflösung von GRAVITY wird diese Sgr A*-Flussmessung nicht durch das Licht von nahegelegenen Sternen gestört, was ähnliche auf adaptive Optik gestützte Studien in der Vergangenheit stark einschränkte. Außerdem konnte ich das Licht des Akkretionsflusses von Sgr A* zu jedem Messzeitpunkt nachweisen, eine Neuerung gegenüber den vorherrgehenden Studien, in welchen nur hellere Zustände von Sgr A* beobachtet werden konnten. Infolgedessen bin ich in der Lage, die erste rein empirische und nicht konfusionslimitierte Flussverteilung von Sgr A* zu erstellen und die 2.2 μm-Flussquantile zu messen. Durch den Vergleich mehrerer statistischer Modelle der Flussverteilung kann ich nachweisen, dass die Flussverteilung logarithmisch rechtsschief ist und nur schlecht durch eine Lognormalverteilung beschrieben wird. Im Gegensatz dazu ist die Flussverteilung gut durch ein Zweikomponentenmodell beschrieben: eine Log-Normalverteilung zur Beschreibung der Ruheemission in Kombination mit einer zweiten Komponente, die einem Potenzgesetz folgt. In diesem Szenario werden die hellen Nahinfrarot- und Röntgenflares in lokalisierten und aufgeheizten Zonen des Akkretionsstroms erzeugt, die sich von der variablen Ruheemission unterscheiden. Das dritte Kapitel in dieser Dissertation untersucht die Eigenschaften eines solchen Flares. Ich berichte über den Nachweis eines simultanen hellen Nahinfrarot- und eines moderaten Röntgenflare. Hierbei verwende ich die Kontrollkamera von GRAVITY, um H-Band-Beobachtungen gleichzeitig zu den interferometrischen K-Band-Beobachtung zu erstellen. Desweiteren kombiniere ich diese beiden Nahinfrarot-Lichtkurven mit gleichzeitigen Beobachtungen durch die Weltraumteleskope Spitzer, Chandra und NuSTAR. Mit Hilfe der so gewonnen Flussmessung modelliere ich die Emissionsregion im Flare-Szenario. Ich berechne die SED des Flares unter Berücksichtigung der Synchrotron- und Synchrotron-Selbst-Compton-Emission. Dies erlaubt mir, die Eigenschaften der für die Emission verantwortlichen Elektronenpopulation abzuleiten. Hierbei stelle ich fest, dass die mäßige Röntgenemission entweder sehr hohe Teilchendichten erfordert oder eine Teilchenverteilung erfordert, die bei Lorentz-Faktoren, die dem Röntgenband entsprechen, abgeschnitten ist. Für das letzte Kapitel der Disseration analysiere ich SINFONI Archivdaten der zentralen ∼ 30 ′′ × 30 ′′ Bogensekunden des Galaktischen Zentrums. Diese Analyse führt zum bis dato größten spektroskopischen Katalog dieser Region. Durch die Kombination dieser Daten konnte ich über 2800 Sterne in jung und alt klassifizieren. Über 200 junge Sterne konnten spektroskpisch identifiziert werden. Für 35 dieser junge Sterne konnte eine vollständige Lösung der Orbitgleichungen gefunden werden. Für die anderen 166 Sterne sind nur fünf von sechs Phasenraumkoordinaten bekannt. Ich stelle eine neue, und statistisch formale, Methode vor, welche die Bestimmung der Posteriorverteilung der Phasenraumkoordinaten erlaubt. Diese neue Methode erlaubt es mir, die Posteriorverteilung der Orbitelemente zu bestimmen und die Posteriorverteilung des Drehmoments der jungen Sterne zu bestimmen. Damit kann ich zeigen, dass mindestens vier verschiedene kinematische Strukturen im Galaktischen Zentrum statistisch signifkant sind. Ich bestätige die Präsenz der bekannten verdrehten Sternenscheibe, die sich im Uhrzeigersinn dreht, und der Sternenscheibe im Gegenuhrzeigersinn. Desweiteren kann ich eine neue Sternenscheibe im Galaktischen Zentrum nachweisen. Diese reichhaltige dynamische Struktur ist konsistent mit einer lokalen Bildung der jungen Sterne. Ich favorisiere die Entstehung der jungen Sternen nach Kollision zweier Molekülgaswolken.The Galactic Center, and the massive black hole Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*) therein, represent one of the most exotic places known to mankind. In this thesis, I present two aspects of the Galactic Center: the accretion flow in the direct proximity of the massive Black Hole and the distribution of young stars in its neighbourhood. The thesis has led to three novel observations of Sgr A*’s spectral energy distribution (SED), which I present in the first three chapters of the thesis. In the last chapter of the thesis, I present my results on the young star population found in the Galactic Center. In the first chapter, I report on the simultaneous detection of Sgr A* in two far-infrared observation bands at 160 μm and 100 μm. These are the first observations of Sgr A* in this wavelength regime obtained using the PACS camera on-board the Herschel space-telescope. The measurements are enabled by a custom-tailored data reduction pipeline, which allow far-infrared differential flux measurements in the Galactic Center at an unprecedented noise level. This led to the detection of variable flux at a significance level of 4.5σ at 160 μm and 1.6σ at 100 μm. The detection of variable flux confirms the turn-over of the SED in the sub-mm, and constrains the electron density, magnetic field strength and electron temperature. The results, in combination with modern ALMA observations of Sgr A*, imply lower than previously measured sub-mm fluxes of Sgr A* which require higher electron temperatures. This implies that the accretion flow is optically thin in the sub-mm, and parts of the mm regime. In the second chapter, to study the flux distribution of Sgr A*. I derive the first coherent flux measurement of Sgr A* obtained from the novel dual beam observing mode in 2019. Furthermore, I use light curves of the year 2017 and 2018 which were published in literature before. Due to the very high spatial resolution of GRAVITY Sgr A*’s flux is unconfused from the light of near-by stars, which severely limited similar adaptive optics-assisted studies in the past. This allows, for the first time, to detect Sgr A* at times it is observed with GRAVITY. In consequence, I report the first purely-empirically derived and unconfused flux distribution of Sgr A* and am able to infer the 2.2 μm flux quantiles. I compare several statistical probability distributions to the observed flux distribution. I find that the flux distribution is log-right skewed and only poorly described by a log-normal distribution. The flux distribution is well described by a two-component model: a quiescent log-normal distribution in combination with a powerlaw tail. This manifests the two component consistent of a flaring and quiescence state scenario proposed for Sgr A*. In this scenario, occasional bright near-infrared and X-ray flares are generated in localized and heated zones of the accretion flow, which are distinct from the variable quiescence emission. In the third chapter of this thesis, I study the properties of such a flare. I report the detection of a simultaneous near-infrared bright and moderate X-ray flare. I use the acquisition camera of GRAVITY to derive simultaneous H-band observations alongside the interfero-metric K-band observation. I combine the two near-infrared light curves with simultaneous observations obtained by the Spitzer, Chandra and NuSTAR spacecrafts. With the help of these flux measurements I model the emission region in the flare-scenario and compute the flare’s SED taking into account synchrotron and synchrotron self-Compton emission. This allows me to derive the properties of electron population responsible for the emission. I find that the moderate X-ray emission either requires very high particle densities or a particle distribution which is cut at Lorentz factors corresponding to the X-ray band. In the last chapter of the thesis I present the largest spectroscopic survey of the Galactic Center to date (∼ 30 ′′ ×30 ′′ ). Combining all available SINFONI observations of the Galactic Center allows me to classify over 2800 stars into young and old stars. My work now includes over 230 young stars, for 35 of which full orbital solutions have been determined. For the other 198 young stars only five of six phase space coordinates are known. I present a new, and statistically rigorous method to determine their posterior phase space distribution. This allows to determine the posterior distribution of orbital elements, and, specifically, to determine the ensemble angular momentum direction. Using the new statistical method I show that at least four kinematic structures in the Galactic Center are statistically significant. I confirm the presence of a warp of the clockwise disk, and the presence of a counter-clockwise disk. In addition to the previously introduced, but disputed kinematic features, I show that a third disk of young stars is present in the Galactic Center. This rich dynamical structure is consistent with an in-situ star formation scenario, and specifically, I favour a star formation event after the collision of two giant molecular clouds

A Detection of Sgr A* in the far infrared

We report the first detection of the Galactic Centre massive black hole, Sgr~A*, in the far infrared. Our measurements were obtained with PACS on board the \emph{Herschel} satellite at $100~\mathrm{\mu m}$ and $160~\mathrm{\mu m}$. While the warm dust in the Galactic Centre is too bright to allow for a direct detection of Sgr~A*, we measure a significant and simultaneous variation of its flux of $\Delta F_{\nu\widehat{=}160 ~\mathrm{\mu m}} = (0.27\pm0.06)~\mathrm{Jy}$ and $\Delta F_{\nu\widehat{=}100 ~\mathrm{\mu m}}= (0.16\pm0.10)~\mathrm{Jy}$ during one observation. The significance level of the $160 ~\mathrm{\mu m}$ band variability is $4.5\sigma$ and the corresponding $100 ~\mathrm{\mu m}$ band variability is significant at $1.6\sigma$. We find no example of an equally significant false positive detection. Conservatively assuming a variability of $25\%$ in the FIR, we can provide upper limits to the flux. Comparing the latter with theoretical models we find that 1D RIAF models have difficulties explaining the observed faintness. However, the upper limits are consistent with modern ALMA and VLA observations. Our upper limits provide further evidence for a spectral peak at $\sim 10^{12} ~ \mathrm{Hz}$ and constrain the number density of $\gamma \sim 100$ electrons in the accretion disk and or outflow.Comment: accepted for publication in AP

What stellar orbit is needed to measure the spin of the Galactic center black hole from astrometric data?

Astrometric and spectroscopic monitoring of individual stars orbiting the supermassive black hole in the Galactic Center offer a promising way to detect general relativistic effects. While low-order effects are expected to be detected following the periastron passage of S2 in Spring 2018, detecting higher-order effects due to black hole spin will require the discovery of closer stars. In this paper, we set out to determine the requirements such a star would have to satisfy to allow the detection of black hole spin. We focus on the instrument GRAVITY, which saw first light in 2016 and which is expected to achieve astrometric accuracies $10-100 \mu$as. For an observing campaign with duration $T$ years, $N_{obs}$ total observations, astrometric precision $\sigma_x$ and normalized black hole spin $\chi$, we find that $a_{orb}(1-e^2)^{3/4} \lesssim 300 R_S \sqrt{\frac{T}{4 \text{years}}} \left(\frac{N_{obs}}{120}\right)^{0.25} \sqrt{\frac{10 \mu as}{\sigma_x}} \sqrt{\frac{\chi}{0.9}}$ is needed. For $\chi=0.9$ and a potential observing campaign with $\sigma_x = 10 \mu$as, 30 observations/year and duration 4-10 years, we expect $\sim 0.1$ star with $K<19$ satisfying this constraint based on the current knowledge about the stellar population in the central 1". We also propose a method through which GRAVITY could potentially measure radial velocities with precision $\sim 50$ km/s. If the astrometric precision can be maintained, adding radial velocity information increases the expected number of stars by roughly a factor of two. While we focus on GRAVITY, the results can also be scaled to parameters relevant for future extremely large telescopes.Comment: Accepted to MNRA

The JWST Galactic Center Survey -- A White Paper

The inner hundred parsecs of the Milky Way hosts the nearest supermassive black hole, largest reservoir of dense gas, greatest stellar density, hundreds of massive main and post main sequence stars, and the highest volume density of supernovae in the Galaxy. As the nearest environment in which it is possible to simultaneously observe many of the extreme processes shaping the Universe, it is one of the most well-studied regions in astrophysics. Due to its proximity, we can study the center of our Galaxy on scales down to a few hundred AU, a hundred times better than in similar Local Group galaxies and thousands of times better than in the nearest active galaxies. The Galactic Center (GC) is therefore of outstanding astrophysical interest. However, in spite of intense observational work over the past decades, there are still fundamental things unknown about the GC. JWST has the unique capability to provide us with the necessary, game-changing data. In this White Paper, we advocate for a JWST NIRCam survey that aims at solving central questions, that we have identified as a community: i) the 3D structure and kinematics of gas and stars; ii) ancient star formation and its relation with the overall history of the Milky Way, as well as recent star formation and its implications for the overall energetics of our galaxy's nucleus; and iii) the (non-)universality of star formation and the stellar initial mass function. We advocate for a large-area, multi-epoch, multi-wavelength NIRCam survey of the inner 100\,pc of the Galaxy in the form of a Treasury GO JWST Large Program that is open to the community. We describe how this survey will derive the physical and kinematic properties of ~10,000,000 stars, how this will solve the key unknowns and provide a valuable resource for the community with long-lasting legacy value.Comment: This White Paper will be updated when required (e.g. new authors joining, editing of content). Most recent update: 24 Oct 202

The GRAVITY+ Project: Towards All-sky, Faint-Science, High-Contrast Near-Infrared Interferometry at the VLTI

The GRAVITY instrument has been revolutionary for near-infrared interferometry by pushing sensitivity and precision to previously unknown limits. With the upgrade of GRAVITY and the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) in GRAVITY+, these limits will be pushed even further, with vastly improved sky coverage, as well as faint-science and high-contrast capabilities. This upgrade includes the implementation of wide-field off-axis fringe-tracking, new adaptive optics systems on all Unit Telescopes, and laser guide stars in an upgraded facility. GRAVITY+ will open up the sky to the measurement of black hole masses across cosmic time in hundreds of active galactic nuclei, use the faint stars in the Galactic centre to probe General Relativity, and enable the characterisation of dozens of young exoplanets to study their formation, bearing the promise of another scientific revolution to come at the VLTI.Comment: Published in the ESO Messenge

The Young Stars in the Galactic Center

[EN] We present a large similar to 30 '' x 30 '' spectroscopic survey of the Galactic Center using the SINFONI IFU at the VLT. Combining observations of the last two decades we compile spectra of over 2800 stars. Using the Bracket-gamma absorption lines, we identify 195 young stars, extending the list of known young stars by 79. In order to explore the angular momentum distribution of the young stars, we introduce an isotropic cluster prior. This prior reproduces an isotropic cluster in a mathematically exact way, which we test through numerical simulations. We calculate the posterior angular momentum space as a function of projected separation from Sgr A*. We find that the observed young star distribution is substantially different from an isotropic cluster. We identify the previously reported feature of the clockwise disk and find that its angular momentum changes as a function of separation from the black hole and thus confirm a warp of the clockwise disk (p similar to 99.2%). At large separations, we discover three prominent overdensities of the angular momentum. One overdensity has been reported previously, the counterclockwise disk. The other two are new. Determining the likely members of these structures, we find that as many as 75% of stars can be associated with one of these features. Stars belonging to the warped clockwise disk show a top-heavy K-band luminosity function, while stars belonging to the larger separation features do not. Our observations are in good agreement with the predictions of simulations of in situ star formation and argue for the common formation of these structures.We thank the referee for a very quick yet thorough report, which helped to improve the paper. A.D., S.V.F., and F.W. acknowledge support from the Max Planck International Research School.Von Fellenberg, SD.; Gillessen, S.; Stadler, J.; Bauböck, M.; Genzel, R.; De Zeeuw, T.; Pfuhl, O.... (2022). The Young Stars in the Galactic Center. The Astrophysical Journal. 932(1):1-29. https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac68ef129932

General relativistic effects and the near-infrared and X-ray variability of Sgr A* I

International audienceThe near-infrared (NIR) and X-ray emission of Sagittarius A* shows occasional bright flares that are assumed to originate from the innermost region of the accretion flow. We identified $25$$4.5 \mu m$ and $24$ X-ray flares in archival data obtained with the \textit{Spitzer} and \textit{Chandra} observatories. With the help of general relativistic ray-tracing code, we modeled trajectories of ``hot spots'' and studied the light curves of the flares for signs of the effects of general relativity. Despite their apparent diversity in shape, all flares share a common, exponential impulse response, a characteristic shape that is the building block of the variability. This shape is symmetric, that is, the rise and fall times are the same. Furthermore, the impulse responses in the NIR and X-ray are identical within uncertainties, with an exponential time constant $\tau\sim 15$ minute. The observed characteristic flare shape is inconsistent with hot-spot orbits viewed edge-on. Individually modeling the light curves of the flares, we derived constraints on the inclination of the orbital plane of the hot spots with respect to the observer ($i \sim 30^{\circ} , < 75^{\circ}$) and on the characteristic timescale of the intrinsic variability (tens of minutes)