Temporal Analysis of the Honey Bee Microbiome Reveals Four Novel Viruses and Seasonal Prevalence of Known Viruses, Nosema, and Crithidia

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a critical role in global food production as pollinators of numerous crops. Recently, honey bee populations in the United States, Canada, and Europe have suffered an unexplained increase in annual losses due to a phenomenon known as Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). Epidemiological analysis of CCD is confounded by a relative dearth of bee pathogen field studies. To identify what constitutes an abnormal pathophysiological condition in a honey bee colony, it is critical to have characterized the spectrum of exogenous infectious agents in healthy hives over time. We conducted a prospective study of a large scale migratory bee keeping operation using high-frequency sampling paired with comprehensive molecular detection methods, including a custom microarray, qPCR, and ultra deep sequencing. We established seasonal incidence and abundance of known viruses, Nosema sp., Crithidia mellificae, and bacteria. Ultra deep sequence analysis further identified four novel RNA viruses, two of which were the most abundant observed components of the honey bee microbiome (∼1011 viruses per honey bee). Our results demonstrate episodic viral incidence and distinct pathogen patterns between summer and winter time-points. Peak infection of common honey bee viruses and Nosema occurred in the summer, whereas levels of the trypanosomatid Crithidia mellificae and Lake Sinai virus 2, a novel virus, peaked in January

The problem with culture

It is natural that a fairly young discipline such as AVT should embrace the cultural turn in translation studies as a vantage standpoint and look at problems of language and culture as closely intertwined. The cultural turn in audiovisual translation has meant going beyond the study of translation patterns normally found in descriptive research (Chaume 2018). This chapter will offer insights on three loci of culture in translation: cultural references, always a fruitful area of research, but one which contains areas deserving of further investigation; intralinguistic culture clashes, that is those potentially conflicting encounters which involve individuals from different cultures sharing the same language; and finally, allusions in film and TV dialogue to what we often understand as ‘culture’ proper, that is high-end or low-brow products of art, literature, music and so on, which constitute a special problem but also a special opportunity for translators

Multilingualism and Translation on Screen

The chapter explores the different ways devised by audiovisual translators to deal with the presence of different languages in films. After examining the main functions played by multilingualism on screen (portraying multilingual reality, producing conflict and/or generating confusion), the chapter moves on to analyse the different translational solutions available to help audiences cope with so-called \u201csecondary languages\u201d present in multilingual films (part-subtitling, diegetic interpreting, contextual translation). The second part of the chapter is then devoted to critically discuss the restrictions and capabilities of both dubbing and subtitling when dealing with multilingualism. The analysis finally leads to define a number of possible further developments in the audiovisual translation of multilingual products