A new generation of 99.999% enriched 28Si single crystals for the determination of Avogadro's constant

A metrological challenge is currently underway to replace the present definition of the kilogram. One prerequisite for this is that the Avogadro constant, NA, which defines the number of atoms in a mole, needs to be determined with a relative uncertainty of better than 2  ×  10−8. The method applied in this case is based on the x-ray crystal density experiment using silicon crystals. The first attempt, in which silicon of natural isotopic composition was used, failed. The solution chosen subsequently was the usage of silicon highly enriched in 28Si from Russia. First, this paper reviews previous efforts from the very first beginnings to an international collaboration with the goal of producing a 28Si single crystal with a mass of 5 kg, an enrichment greater than 0.9999 and of sufficient chemical purity. Then the paper describes the activities of a follow-up project, conducted by PTB, to produce a new generation of highly enriched silicon in order to demonstrate the quasi-industrial and reliable production of more than 12 kg of the 28Si material with enrichments of five nines. The intention of this project is also to show the availability of 28Si single crystals as a guarantee for the future realisation of the redefined kilogram

Improved measurement results for the Avogadro constant using a 28Si-enriched crystal

New results are reported from an ongoing international research effort to accurately determine the Avogadro constant by counting the atoms in an isotopically enriched silicon crystal. The surfaces of two 28Si-enriched spheres were decontaminated and reworked in order to produce an outer surface without metal contamination and improved sphericity. New measurements were then made on these two reconditioned spheres using improved methods and apparatuses. When combined with other recently refined parameter measurements, the Avogadro constant derived from these new results has a value of $N_A = 6.022 140 76(12) \times 10^{23}$ mol$^{-1}$. The X-ray crystal density method has thus achieved the target relative standard uncertainty of $2.0 \times 10^{-8}$ necessary for the realization of the definition of the new kilogram.Comment: postprint, 22 page, 3 figures, 14 table

The lattice parameter of the 28Si spheres in the determination of the Avogadro constant

The Avogadro constant has been determined by atom counting in two enriched 28 Si spheres. Atoms were counted by exploiting their ordered arrangement in the spheres and calculating the ratio between sphere and the unit-cell volumes. This paper describes how the values of the sphere lattice parameters and, consequently, their unit-cell volumes were obtained

Traceable Quantitative Raman Microscopy and X ray Fluorescence Analysis as Nondestructive Methods for the Characterization of Cu In,Ga Se2 Absorber Films

The traceability of measured quantities is an essential condition when linking process control parameters to guaranteed physical properties of a product. Using Raman spectroscopy as an analytical tool for monitoring the production of Cu In1 xGax Se2 thin film solar cells, proper calibration with regard to chemical composition and lateral dimensions is a key prerequisite. This study shows how the multiple requirements of calibration in Raman microscopy might be addressed. The surface elemental composition as well as the integral elemental composition of the samples is traced back by reference free X ray fluorescence analysis. Reference Raman spectra are then generated for the relevant Cu In1 xGax Se2 related compounds. The lateral dimensions are calibrated with the help of a novel dimensional standard whose regular structures have been traced back to the International System of Units by metrological scanning force microscopy. On this basis, an approach for the quantitative determination of surface coverage values from lateral Raman mappings is developed together with a complete uncertainty budget. Raman and X ray spectrometry have here been proven as complementary nondestructive methods combining surface sensitivity and in depth information on elemental and species distribution for the reliable quality control of Cu In1 xGax Se2 absorbers and Cu In1 xGax 3Se5 surface layer formatio

Characterization of ZnO structures by optical and X-ray methods

ZnO thin films doped by Ga and In as well as multilayer structures of ZnO/Al2O3 have been investigated by X-ray fluorescence, Raman spectrometry, spectroscopic ellipsometry and vacuum ultra violet reflectometry. Systematic changes in the optical properties have been revealed even for Ga concentrations below 1%. The Raman active phonon mode of Ga doping at 580 cm−1 shows a correlation with the Ga concentration. Optical models with surface nanoroughness correction and different parameterizations of the dielectric function have been investigated. There was a good agreement between the dielectric functions determined by the Herzinger–Johs polynomial parameterization and by direct inversion. It has been shown that the correction of the nanoroughness significantly influences the accuracy of the determination of the layer properties. The band gap and peak amplitude of the imaginary part of the dielectric function corresponding to the excitonic transition changes systematically with the Ga-content and with annealing even for low concentrations