Landforms of the lower Hushe Valley (Central Karakoram, Pakistan)

This paper presents a new geomorphological map for the lower Hushe Valley (below 3400 m asl), located to the SE of the Central Karakoram in Baltistan (North Pakistan). Fieldwork and remote sensing were combined to improve understanding of the most recent surface landforms to produce a 1:50,000 scale map. Thirteen landform types associated with glacial, fluvial, gravitational and mass wasting processes were identified and mapped. Particular emphasis was made on currently dynamic processes that could pose a threat to the population. The distribution of the landforms on the valley (reworked tills, alluvial fans, rockfalls, among others) differs between the eastern and the western hillslopes, and from north to south, mainly due to bedrock types, location of geological structures and distribution of lateral tributaries. This map is the first and necessary step towards a deep assessment on geological risk related to external processes in the area.This research was funded by the Basque Government (Eusko Jaurlaritza) through the Humanitarian Action 2018 fund (PRE2018EH/0004) and the Consolidated Research Group IT1029-16. We also thank the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU for the suppor

Ancient saltern metagenomics: tracking changes in microbes and their viruses from the underground to the surface

Microbial communities in hypersaline underground waters derive from ancient organisms trapped within the evaporitic salt crystals and are part of the poorly known subterranean biosphere. Here, we characterized the viral and prokaryotic assemblages present in the hypersaline springs that dissolve Triassic-Keuper evaporite rocks and feed the Anana Salt Valley (Araba/Alava, Basque Country, Spain). Four underground water samples (around 23% total salinity) with different levels of exposure to the open air were analysed by means of microscopy and metagenomics. Cells and viruses in the spring water had lower concentrations than what are normally found in hypersaline environments and seemed to be mostly inactive. Upon exposure to the open air, there was an increase in activity of both cells and viruses as well as a selection of phylotypes. The underground water was inhabited by a rich community harbouring a diverse set of genes coding for retinal binding proteins. A total of 35 viral contigs from 15 to 104 kb, representing partial or total viral genomes, were assembled and their evolutionary changes through the spring system were followed by SNP analysis and metagenomic island tracking. Overall, both the viral and the prokaryotic assemblages changed quickly upon exposure to the open air conditions.We would like to thank Anana Salt Valley Foundation, and Andoni Erkiaga Agirre, its director at the time of sampling, for their kind help. Thanks to Leire Arana, Edorta Loma and Kika Colom for their help with sampling and to Eduardo Gonzalez-Pastor for telling us about the Anana Salt Valley. We thank Heather Maughan for the professional English editing and the critical reading of the manuscript and Esther Rubio-Portillo for her help with statistical analyses. This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities grant MICROMATES (PGC2018-096956-B-C41 and C44, to J.A./F.S. and R.R.-M.), which was also supported with European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) funds, and by the Generalitat Valenciana grant PROMETEO/2017/129. Documen

2030 Agendako helburuetatik lurra-ura hartzera

The 2030 Agenda includes objectives in three dimensions (economic, social and environmental). To these three, we must add the territory where the action plans are implemented. Hence, as researchers working in hydrology we must generate knowledge towards the resilience of dynamic territories combining Water and Land. Thus, this article analyses the need to establish a basin-perspective in water management instead of the usual river-perspective, considering the basin as the basic bio-physical unit for territorial planning. Climate change mitigation and adaptation policies converge in the basin, facilitating the identification of synergies and trade-offs between both strategies. In fact, global mitigation policies focus, largely, on carbon sequestration through reforestation, neglecting its side-effects on adaptation. The hydrological functions of the territory affect the quantity, quality, location and timing of water, by accumulating, moving and transforming it. Therefore, accepting this water regulatory function would imply a change in the way of understanding the management of water resources and an improvement in the integration of hydrological services in the territorial planning. For this purpose, local knowledge and knowledge on trade-offs and synergies between different objectives are needed. In this era of uncertainties, we should focus our main research strategies towards minimization of uncertainties in order to properly manage them and make knowledge-informed decisions, thus, changing the management paradigm. We need, therefore, socio-political will to redirect territorial dynamics, incorporating a development model adapted to local ecosystem services limitations, placing Land and Water in the centre of the territory, anywhere in the world; Garapen Iraunkorrerako 2030 Agendaren hiru dimentsioei (ekonomikoa, soziala eta ingurumenarena) lurraldearena gehitu behar zaie, ekintza-planak gauzatzeko ezinbesteko ingurune fisikoa baita. Hortik dator hidrologiatik ari garen ikertzaileok iraunkortasunari egin diezaiokegun ekarpena: ura eta lurra uztartuta lurralde dinamikoak erresiliente egiteko bidean ezagutza sortzea, erabakietan eragiteko. Iraunkortasuna zutabe hartuta, uraren kudeaketan ohikoa den ibai-ikuspegia aldatu eta arro-ikuspegia ezarri beharra dugu, eta ibai-arroa (ura + lurraldea) lurralde-antolamenduaren oinarrizko unitate biofisiko bihurtu. Hala, klima-aldaketaren aurrean ezartzen diren arintze- eta egokitze-politiken bateragune bihurtzen da ibai-arroa, bi estrategia horien arteko sinergiak eta helburu-gatazkak identifikatzea errazten duen heinean. Izan ere, klima-aldaketarekin lotutako mundu mailako arintze-politiken oinarriak karbonoa bahitzea eta horri lotuta lurraldea basotzea dira neurri handi batean, basotzeak klima-aldaketara egokitzeko ekar ditzakeen albo-kalteak kontuan izan gabe. Lurraldearen funtzio hidrologikoek eragina dute uraren kantitatean, kalitatean, kokapenean eta denboran, zeren eta ura metatzen, mugitzen etaeraldatzen baitute. Beraz, lurraldeak uraren erregulatzaile gisa duen funtzioa onartuz gero, baliabide hidrologikoen kudeaketa ulertzeko modua aldatuko litzateke, baita egokitzera bidean lurraldearen kudeaketan zerbitzu hidrologikoak barneratzea erraztuko ere. Horretarako, beharrezkoa da tokiko eskalari lotutako ezagutzen eta helburuen arteko gatazkak eta sinergiak zein diren jakitea. Alde horretatik, bizi dugun ziurgabetasun-aroan, auzi horiek argitzera bideratu behar genituzke ikerketa-bide nagusiak, haiek egoki kudeatzeko eta ezagutzak informatutako erabakiak hartzeko, ohiko inertziak gaindituta, kudeaketa-paradigma aldatuta. Hortaz, lurralde-dinamikak birbideratzeko borondate soziopolitikoa behar da, eta naturak lekuan-lekuan eskaintzen dituen zerbitzu ekosistemikoen mugetara egokituriko garapen-eredu bat barneratu, lurra eta ura lurraldearen ardatzean jarrita, munduko edozein herrialdetan

Why Did Red Ereño Limestone Go Red? Linking Scientific Knowledge and Geoheritage Story-Telling (Basque Country, Spain)

Red Ereño is a red-stained ornamental and construction limestone with characteristic white fossil shells. Although exploited since Roman times, marketed worldwide and that the rock itself and its outcrop areas have been included in geological heritage inventories, the origin of its characteristic reddish colour remained unresolved. The aim of this work is to deepen the scientific knowledge of Red Ereño as a basis for understanding the characteristics of this stone and to make this information available for geoconservation actions. The mineralogical and petrological study, mainly based on optical and electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and rock magnetism and paleomagnetic techniques, concluded that the red-staining mineral is pigmentary hematite. Moreover, the analysis stated that hematite precipitated after sedimentation but prior to burial diagenesis and before alpine inversion. Based on palaeomagnetic studies, it can be stated that mineralisation occurred during the Late Cretaceous. This work illustrates how scientific research on this potential heritage stone provides key information for geoconservation.This study has been carried out by the UPV/EHU Research Group IT-1678/22 (Government of the Basque Country) in the framework of the project US21/32 under the cooperation agreement between the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Basque Energy Agency (EVE), and Provincial Council of Biscay (BFA). Authors also thank the support of the project PID2019-108753GB-C21 financed by State Research Agency (Spain) [AEI /https://doi.org/10.13039/501100011033]. Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. UPV/EHU Research Group IT-1678/22 (Government of the Basque Country); UPV/EHU, EVE/EEE, DFB/BFA project US21/32

Streamflow response of a small forested catchment on different timescales

The hydrological response of a catchment to rainfall on different timescales is result of a complex system involving a range of physical processes which may operate simultaneously and have different spatial and temporal influences. This paper presents the analysis of streamflow response of a small humid-temperate catchment (Aixola, 4.8 km(2)) in the Basque Country on different timescales and discusses the role of the controlling factors. Firstly, daily time series analysis was used to establish a hypothesis on the general functioning of the catchment through the relationship between precipitation and discharge on an annual and multiannual scale (2003-2008). Second, rainfall-runoff relationships and relationships among several hydrological variables, including catchment antecedent conditions, were explored at the event scale (222 events) to check and improve the hypothesis. Finally, the evolution of electrical conductivity (EC) during some of the monitored storm events (28 events) was examined to identify the time origin of waters. Quick response of the catchment to almost all the rainfall events as well as a considerable regulation capacity was deduced from the correlation and spectral analyses. These results agree with runoff event scale data analysis; however, the event analysis revealed the non-linearity of the system, as antecedent conditions play a significant role in this catchment. Further, analysis at the event scale made possible to clarify factors controlling (precipitation, precipitation intensity and initial discharge) the different aspects of the runoff response (runoff coefficient and discharge increase) for this catchment. Finally, the evolution of EC of the waters enabled the time origin (event or pre-event waters) of the quickflow to be established; specifically, the conductivity showed that pre-event waters usually represent a high percentage of the total discharge during runoff peaks. The importance of soil waters in the catchment is being studied more deeply.The authors wish to thank the Environment and Land Management Department of the Gipuzkoa Provincial Council, the University of the Basque Country (UFI 11/26), and the Basque Government (Consolidated Group IT516-10 and the K-Egokitzen project-ETORTEK IE10-277) for supporting this research

Assessing the effect of alternative land uses in the provision of water resources: Evidence and policy implications from southern Europe

Ecosystem goods and services have been brought to the forefront of policy making all over the world. It is acknowledged that these goods and services underpin human well-being. The provision of water resources is amongst those services that have raised more attention, given its unquestionable value and global threats like climatic change. Nevertheless, the biophysical basis that determines the land-use/water interactions has been often ignored. For the formulation of sound decisions, it is necessary to extend the empirical basis that determines these complex relations. With this aim, the present paper analyses the effect of alternative types of land cover in the provision of water resources. In doing so, we compare hydrological, meteorological and land-cover data obtained in 15 watersheds located in the Basque Country (Northern Spain). Moreover we discuss the implications of including water resources in land-use policy and planning and address areas for further research.Department of Education of the Basque Government through grant IT-334-07 (UPV/EHU Econometrics Research Group), K-Egokitzen project (ETORTEK IE09-245, Basque Government) Spanish Ministerio de Educación and FEDER (SEJ2007-61362

Factors controlling suspended sediment yield during runoff events in small headwater catchments of the Basque Country

For the first time in the Basque Country, turbidity (NTU), discharge (l/s) and precipitation (mm) have been continuously monitored in the gauging stations located at the outlet of three catchments (Aixola, Barrendiola and Añarbe) since October 2003. In this study, several data sets derived from flood events were used to develop turbidity and suspended sediment relationships for the three catchments separately, and so to estimate continuous suspended sediment concentration (SSC). Linear relationships are found in Barrendiola and Añarbe, and two curvilinear relationships for Aixola owing to changing sediment sources in the catchment. Several event (discharge, precipitation and suspended sediment concentration) and pre-event (discharge and precipitation) factors are calculated for all the events registered. With them correlation matrixes were developed for each catchment. Although some differences are found between catchments good correlation between precipitation (P), discharge (Q) and suspended sediment (SS) variables is found in general. Pre-event conditions are also well correlated with Q and SS variables in Barrendiola (higher regulation capacity) and Añarbe (larger area) but not in Aixola (“flash floods”). SSC-discharge evolutions through the events were also analysed. For Aixola four different types of hysteretic loops were observed: single lined, clockwise, counter-clockwise and eight-shaped; while for Barrendiola and Añarbe just clockwise loops were observed.The authors wish to thank the Sustainable Development Department of Gipuzkoa Provincial Council, Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology (REN2002-01705/HID) University of the Basque Countr

Ancient saltern metagenomics: tracking changes in microbes and their viruses from the underground to the surface

Microbial communities in hypersaline underground waters derive from ancient organisms trapped within the evaporitic salt crystals and are part of the poorly known subterranean biosphere. Here, we characterized the viral and prokaryotic assemblages present in the hypersaline springs that dissolve Triassic-Keuper evaporite rocks and feed the Anana Salt Valley (Araba/Alava, Basque Country, Spain). Four underground water samples (around 23% total salinity) with different levels of exposure to the open air were analysed by means of microscopy and metagenomics. Cells and viruses in the spring water had lower concentrations than what are normally found in hypersaline environments and seemed to be mostly inactive. Upon exposure to the open air, there was an increase in activity of both cells and viruses as well as a selection of phylotypes. The underground water was inhabited by a rich community harbouring a diverse set of genes coding for retinal binding proteins. A total of 35 viral contigs from 15 to 104 kb, representing partial or total viral genomes, were assembled and their evolutionary changes through the spring system were followed by SNP analysis and metagenomic island tracking. Overall, both the viral and the prokaryotic assemblages changed quickly upon exposure to the open air conditions.We would like to thank Anana Salt Valley Foundation, and Andoni Erkiaga Agirre, its director at the time of sampling, for their kind help. Thanks to Leire Arana, Edorta Loma and Kika Colom for their help with sampling and to Eduardo Gonzalez-Pastor for telling us about the Anana Salt Valley. We thank Heather Maughan for the professional English editing and the critical reading of the manuscript and Esther Rubio-Portillo for her help with statistical analyses. This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities grant MICROMATES (PGC2018-096956-B-C41 and C44, to J.A./F.S. and R.R.-M.), which was also supported with European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) funds, and by the Generalitat Valenciana grant PROMETEO/2017/129. Documen