Estimation of Esfarayen Farmers Risk Aversion Coefficient and Its Influencing Factors (Nonparametric Approach)

Introduction: Due to existence of the risk and uncertainty in agriculture, risk management is crucial for management in agriculture. Therefore the present study was designed to determine the risk aversion coefficient for Esfarayens farmers. Materials and Methods: The following approaches have been utilized to assess risk attitudes: (1) direct elicitation of utility functions, (2) experimental procedures in which individuals are presented with hypothetical questionnaires regarding risky alternatives with or without real payments and (3): Inference from observation of economic behavior. In this paper, we focused on approach (3): inference from observation of economic behavior, based on this assumption of existence of the relationship between the actual behavior of a decision maker and the behavior predicted from empirically specified models. A new non-parametric method and the QP method were used to calculate the coefficient of risk aversion. We maximized the decision maker expected utility with the E-V formulation (Freund, 1956). Ideally, in constructing a QP model, the variance-covariance matrix should be formed for each individual farmer. For this purpose, a sample of 100 farmers was selected using random sampling and their data about 14 products of years 2008- 2012 were assembled. The lowlands of Esfarayen were used since within this area, production possibilities are rather homogeneous. Results and Discussion: The results of this study showed that there was low correlation between some of the activities, which implies opportunities for income stabilization through diversification. With respect to transitory income, Ra, vary from 0.000006 to 0.000361 and the absolute coefficient of risk aversion in our sample were 0.00005. The estimated Ra values vary considerably from farm to farm. The results showed that the estimated Ra for the subsample existing of 'non-wealthy' farmers was 0.00010. The subsample with farmers in the 'wealthy' group had an absolute risk aversion of 0.00003, which is lower than for the subsample existing of farmers in the 'non-wealthy' group. This assumption that the absolute risk aversion is a decreasing function of wealth is in accordance with Arrow (1970) expectation. The method used was to calculate the proportional risk premium (PRP) representing the proportion of the expected payoff of a risky prospect that the farmers would be willing to pay to trade away all the risk for a certain thing, proposed by Hardaker (2000). Our finding showed that the higher risk averse the farmer was, the higher will the PRP would be. Farmers risk premium was 303113 IRR. It should be mentioned that the 'non-wealthy' group had a larger PRP than the 'wealthy' group. Following Freund (1956), if the net revenue for each activity is normally distributed and assuming a negative exponential utility function, we can utilize the absolute risk aversion coefficient to obtain relative risk aversion coefficient (Rr). Based on this study, Rr vary from 0.31 to 8.49 and the relative coefficient of risk aversion in our sample was 4.79. Our results showed that the majority of farmers in the study area are highly risk averse (Anderson and Dillon, 1992). The relationships between the relative risk aversion coefficients of farmers and their socio-economic characteristics were also evaluated in this study. Results showed that the age had a positive impact, level of wealth and diversity had negative impacts on farmers' risk aversion coefficient. Conclusion: Due to existence of the risk and uncertainty in agriculture, the present study was designed to determine the risk aversion coefficient for Esfarayen farmers. A new non-parametric method and the QP method were used to calculate the coefficient of risk aversion. The model used in this analysis found the optimal farm plan given a planning horizon of 1 year. Thus, the historical mean GM vector and variance-covariance matrix were assumed to represent farmers beliefs. Our results showed that the majority of farmers in the study area are highly risk averse. In addition the more risk averse the farmer was, the higher will the PRP would be. Farmers risk premium was 303113 IRR. Our finding showed that the age had a positive impact, level of wealth and diversity had negative impacts on farmers risk aversion coefficient. According to the results, insurance development and investment in agricultural commodities exchange was suggested to reduce the coefficient of risk aversion

Characterization of carbapenem-resistant but cephalosporin-susceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa

In this study, mechanisms of carbapenem resistance in carbapenem-resistant but cephalosporin-susceptible (Car-R/Ceph-S) Pseudomonas aeruginosa were investigated. A total of 243 P. aeruginosa isolates were studied. The disk diffusion and agar dilution methods were used for determination of antibiotic susceptibility patterns. AmpC and efflux pump overproductions were detected by phenotypic methods. The presence of carbapenemase-encoding genes was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The expression of OprD, MexAB-OprM, and MexXY-OprM efflux pumps was assessed by real-time PCR. According to disk diffusion method, altogether 116 P. aeruginosa isolates (47.7) were carbapenem-resistant and among them, 23 isolates (19.8) were cephalosporin-susceptible. Carbapenemase producer was not detected. Overexpression of AmpC was detected in one (4.3) isolate that was ceftazidime-susceptible but cefepime-resistant. Overexpression of MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM efflux pumps was detected in 12 (60.9) and 16 (68.8) of isolates, respectively. A total of 16 (68.8) isolates showed decreased expression of OprD. The Car-R/Ceph-S P. aeruginosa did not develop by carbapenemase production. The resistance to carbapenem was mediated in our clinical isolates by decreased expression of OprD and overexpression of MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM efflux systems or the combination of these mechanisms

Resistenz von bei Harnweginfektionen isolierten Enterobacteriaceae gegen Chinolone, Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoyxazol und Aminoglycoside in Azerbaijan, Iran

Aim: Antibiotic susceptibility patterns help to select appropriate empirical treatments of urinary tract infections (UTIs). This study aimed to investigate antibiotic resistance among Enterobacteriaceae isolated from UTIs in Azerbaijan, Iran.Methods: This study was carried out during 2016 in hospitals located in Tabriz, Urmia, and Khoy. Midstream urine specimens were cultured and identified by the standard methods. Susceptibility testing was carried out using the disk diffusion agar method for cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, cefoxitin, imipenem, meropenem, ertapenem, cefepime, ampicillin, cefazolin, cefuroxime, aztreonam, nitrofurantoin, and fosfomycin and the agar dilution method for MIC determination of aminoglycosides, quinolones, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Results: A total of 219 non-duplicated Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from UTIs. According to the agar dilution assay, the following resistance rates were determined: trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) 69.8%, nalidixic acid 68.9%, ciprofloxacin 66.2%, levofloxacin 58.5%, tobramycin 47.9%, kanamycin 39.3%, gentamicin 27.8%, and amikacin 5.5%. High levels of resistance were observed to trimethoprim (78.5%), sulfamethoxazole (88.1%), ampicillin (86.3%), and cephazoline (79.4%). Conclusion: The most effective agents against Enterobacteriaceae were fosfomycin, carbapenems, and amikacin. Quinolones, trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole are not appropriate for empirical therapy due to high levels of resistance. Amikacin is more effective among aminoglycosides and may be more effective, in complicated cases, when used in combination with fosfomycin and carbapenems.Zielsetzung: Antibiotika-Suszeptibilitätsmuster unterstützen die Auswahl von Antibiotika zur empirischen Behandlung von Harnweginfektionen (HWI). Daher sollte die Antibiotikaresistenz von bei Harnweginfektionen in Azerbaijan isolierten Enterobacteriaceae untersucht werden. Methode: Die Studie wurde in 2016 in Krankenhäusern in Tabriz, Urmia und Khoy durchgeführt. Mittelstrahlurin wurde mittels üblicher Technik kultiviert. Die Resistenztestung wurde für Cefotaxim, Ceftazidim, Ceftriaxon, Cefoxitin, Imipenem, Meropenem, Ertapenem, Cefepim, Ampicillin, Cefazolin, Cefuroxime, Aztreonam, Nitrofurantoin und Fosfomycin mit dem Plättchentest, für Aminoglycoside, Chinolone, Sulfamethoxazol und Trimethoprim im Agardiffusionstest mittels Bestimmung der MHK durchgeführt.Ergebnisse: Bei 219 verschiedenen Enterobacteriaceae spp. wurden folgende Resistenzraten ermittelt: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazol (Cotrimoxazol) 69,8%, Nalidixinsäure 68,9%, Ciprofloxacin 66,2%, Levofloxacin 58,5%, Tobramycin 47,9%, Kanamycin 39,3%, Gentamicin 27,8% und Amikacin 5,5%. Hohe Resistenzraten wurden bei Sulfamethoxazol 88,1%, Ampicillin 86,3%, Cephazolin 79,4% und Trimethoprim 78,5% beobachtet.Schlussfolgerungen: Am wirksamsten erwiesen sich gegen Enterobacteriaceae spp. Fosfomycin, Carbapeneme und Amikacin. Chinolone, Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazol sind nicht geeignet zur empirischen Therapie. Unter den Aminoglycosiden ist Amikacin wirksamer und in Kombination mit Fosfomycin und Carbapenemen bei schweren Verlaufsformen möglicherweise noch wirksamer

Resistenz von bei Harnweginfektionen isolierten Enterobacteriaceae gegen Chinolone, Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoyxazol und Aminoglycoside in Azerbaijan, Iran

Aim: Antibiotic susceptibility patterns help to select appropriate empirical treatments of urinary tract infections (UTIs). This study aimed to investigate antibiotic resistance among Enterobacteriaceae isolated from UTIs in Azerbaijan, Iran.Methods: This study was carried out during 2016 in hospitals located in Tabriz, Urmia, and Khoy. Midstream urine specimens were cultured and identified by the standard methods. Susceptibility testing was carried out using the disk diffusion agar method for cefotaxime, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, cefoxitin, imipenem, meropenem, ertapenem, cefepime, ampicillin, cefazolin, cefuroxime, aztreonam, nitrofurantoin, and fosfomycin and the agar dilution method for MIC determination of aminoglycosides, quinolones, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Results: A total of 219 non-duplicated Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from UTIs. According to the agar dilution assay, the following resistance rates were determined: trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) 69.8%, nalidixic acid 68.9%, ciprofloxacin 66.2%, levofloxacin 58.5%, tobramycin 47.9%, kanamycin 39.3%, gentamicin 27.8%, and amikacin 5.5%. High levels of resistance were observed to trimethoprim (78.5%), sulfamethoxazole (88.1%), ampicillin (86.3%), and cephazoline (79.4%). Conclusion: The most effective agents against Enterobacteriaceae were fosfomycin, carbapenems, and amikacin. Quinolones, trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole are not appropriate for empirical therapy due to high levels of resistance. Amikacin is more effective among aminoglycosides and may be more effective, in complicated cases, when used in combination with fosfomycin and carbapenems.Zielsetzung: Antibiotika-Suszeptibilitätsmuster unterstützen die Auswahl von Antibiotika zur empirischen Behandlung von Harnweginfektionen (HWI). Daher sollte die Antibiotikaresistenz von bei Harnweginfektionen in Azerbaijan isolierten Enterobacteriaceae untersucht werden. Methode: Die Studie wurde in 2016 in Krankenhäusern in Tabriz, Urmia und Khoy durchgeführt. Mittelstrahlurin wurde mittels üblicher Technik kultiviert. Die Resistenztestung wurde für Cefotaxim, Ceftazidim, Ceftriaxon, Cefoxitin, Imipenem, Meropenem, Ertapenem, Cefepim, Ampicillin, Cefazolin, Cefuroxime, Aztreonam, Nitrofurantoin und Fosfomycin mit dem Plättchentest, für Aminoglycoside, Chinolone, Sulfamethoxazol und Trimethoprim im Agardiffusionstest mittels Bestimmung der MHK durchgeführt.Ergebnisse: Bei 219 verschiedenen Enterobacteriaceae spp. wurden folgende Resistenzraten ermittelt: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazol (Cotrimoxazol) 69,8%, Nalidixinsäure 68,9%, Ciprofloxacin 66,2%, Levofloxacin 58,5%, Tobramycin 47,9%, Kanamycin 39,3%, Gentamicin 27,8% und Amikacin 5,5%. Hohe Resistenzraten wurden bei Sulfamethoxazol 88,1%, Ampicillin 86,3%, Cephazolin 79,4% und Trimethoprim 78,5% beobachtet.Schlussfolgerungen: Am wirksamsten erwiesen sich gegen Enterobacteriaceae spp. Fosfomycin, Carbapeneme und Amikacin. Chinolone, Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazol sind nicht geeignet zur empirischen Therapie. Unter den Aminoglycosiden ist Amikacin wirksamer und in Kombination mit Fosfomycin und Carbapenemen bei schweren Verlaufsformen möglicherweise noch wirksamer

nim-Gen-unabhängige Metronidazolresistenz von Bacteroides fragilis in Surgical Site Infections

Background: Bacteroides fragilis is the most common anaerobic pathogen isolated from surgical site infections (SSIs). Metronidazole resistance is increasing and the mechanisms of resistance are not clear in some isolates. The aim of the present study was to investigate the metronidazole susceptibility prevalence, and detect nim genes in B. fragilis isolates from SSIs. Methods: This study included 100 surgery patients with signs and symptoms indicative of SSIs. Syringe aspiration of the infected site was used to collect specimens. All specimens were cultured on BBA (Brucella blood agar), KVLB (kanamycin-vancomycin laked blood), and BBE (Bacteroides bile esculin) agar. The MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) of metronidazole was determined by the agar dilution method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI). Then the PCR method was used to determine the presence of the nim gene.Results: In the present study, 26 B. fragilis were isolated from 100 SSIs specimens. Eight isolates were metronidazole resistant; the metronidazole MIC was 32 µg/mL for 7 isolates and 64 µg/mL for one isolate. All isolates were nim gene negative. Conclusion: The emergence of metronidazole-resistant B. fragilis limits the application of this drug for treatment and prophylaxis of SSIs. Thus, rapid identification of metronidazole-resistant B. fragilis is essential to restrict inappropriate, superfluous administration. In spite of various metronidazole resistance mechanisms other than that depending on the nim gene, detection of nim by PCR is unsuitable for identifying resistant isolates. Therefore, phenotypic methods are better to screen for and identify metronidazole-resistant B. fragilis .Hintergrund: Bacteroides fragilis ist der häufigste bei Surgical Site Infections (SSI) isolierte Anaerobier. Da die Resistenz gegen Metronidazol im Anstieg begriffen ist und die Resistenzmechanismen bei einigen Isolaten unklar sind, sollten die Prävalenz Metronidazol-sensibler Erreger und das Vorkommen von nim -Genen bei B. fragilis -Isolaten von SSIs untersucht werden.Methode: Es wurden 100 Patienten mit diagnostizierter SSI untersucht. Die mikrobiologischen Proben wurden mittels Nadelaspiration aus dem Infektionsherd gewonnen. Die Kultivierung erfolgte auf Brucella-Blutagar, Kanamycin-Vancomycin-Laked Blutagar und Bacteroides-Galle-Esculin-Agar. Die minimale Hemmkonzentration (MHK) von Metronidazol wurde im Agarverdünnungstest gemäß Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) bestimmt. Der Nachweis des nim -Gens erfolgte mittels PCR.Ergebnisse: In 26 Fällen wurde B. fragilis isoliert. Acht Isolate waren gegen Metronidazol resistent (MHK 32 µg/mL bei 7, 64 µg/mL bei einem Isolat). In keinem Isolat war das nim -Gen nachweisbar.Schlussfolgerung: Das Vorkommen Metronidazol-resistenter B. fragilis -Stämme kann den Erfolg der perioperativen Antibiotikaprophylaxe und ebenso der Therapie infrage stellen. Daher ist die rasche Identifikation Metronidazol-resistenter B. fragilis -Stämme wichtig, um eine ungeeignete Verabreichung zu verhindern. In Anbetracht verschiedener nim -Gen-unabhängiger Resistenzmechanismen ist der Nachweis des nim -Gens mittels PCR zur Identifikation resistenter Isolate ungeeignet. Stattdessen eignen sich phänotypische Methoden zum Screening Metronidazol-resistenter B. fragilis -Stämme