2,905 research outputs found
Debris Disks: Probing Planet Formation
Debris disks are the dust disks found around ~20% of nearby main sequence
stars in far-IR surveys. They can be considered as descendants of
protoplanetary disks or components of planetary systems, providing valuable
information on circumstellar disk evolution and the outcome of planet
formation. The debris disk population can be explained by the steady
collisional erosion of planetesimal belts; population models constrain where
(10-100au) and in what quantity (>1Mearth) planetesimals (>10km in size)
typically form in protoplanetary disks. Gas is now seen long into the debris
disk phase. Some of this is secondary implying planetesimals have a Solar
System comet-like composition, but some systems may retain primordial gas.
Ongoing planet formation processes are invoked for some debris disks, such as
the continued growth of dwarf planets in an unstirred disk, or the growth of
terrestrial planets through giant impacts. Planets imprint structure on debris
disks in many ways; images of gaps, clumps, warps, eccentricities and other
disk asymmetries, are readily explained by planets at >>5au. Hot dust in the
region planets are commonly found (<5au) is seen for a growing number of stars.
This dust usually originates in an outer belt (e.g., from exocomets), although
an asteroid belt or recent collision is sometimes inferred.Comment: Invited review, accepted for publication in the 'Handbook of
Exoplanets', eds. H.J. Deeg and J.A. Belmonte, Springer (2018
Stochastic accretion of planetesimals on to white dwarfs: Constraints on the mass distribution of accreted material from atmospheric pollution
This paper explores how the stochastic accretion of planetesimals on to white dwarfs would be manifested in observations of their atmospheric pollution. Archival observations of pollution levels for unbiased samples of DA and non-DA white dwarfs are used to derive the distribution of inferred accretion rates, confirming that rates become systematically lower as sinking time (assumed here to be dominated by gravitational settling) is decreased, with no discernable dependence on cooling age. The accretion rates expected from planetesimals that are all the same mass (i.e., a mono-mass distribution) are explored both analytically and using a Monte Carlo model, quantifying how measured accretion rates inevitably depend on sinking time, since different sinking times probe different times since the last accretion event. However, that dependence is so dramatic that a mono-mass distribution can be excluded within the context of this model. Consideration of accretion from a broad distribution of planetesimal masses uncovers an important conceptual difference: accretion is continuous (rather than stochastic) for planetesimals below a certain mass, and the accretion of such planetesimals determines the rate typically inferred from observations; smaller planetesimals dominate the rates for shorter sinking times. A reasonable fit to the observationally inferred accretion rate distributions is found with model parameters consistent with a collisionally evolved mass distribution up to Pluto-mass, and an underlying accretion rate distribution consistent with that expected from descendants of debris discs of main-sequence A stars. With these parameters, while both DA and non-DA white dwarfs accrete from the same broad planetesimal distribution, this model predicts that the pollution seen in DAs is dominated by the continuous accretion of 35 km objects (though the dominant size varies between stars by around an order of magnitude from this reference value). Furthermore, observations that characterize the dependence of inferred accretion rates on sinking time and cooling age (including a consideration of the effect of thermohaline convection on models used to derive those rates), and the decadal variability of DA accretion signatures, will improve constraints on the mass distribution of accreted material and the lifetime of the disc through which it is accreted
Five steps in the evolution from protoplanetary to debris disk
The protoplanetary disks of Herbig Ae stars eventually dissipate leaving a
tenuous debris disk comprised of planetesimals and dust, as well as possibly
gas and planets. This paper uses the properties of 10-20Myr A star debris disks
to consider the protoplanetary to debris disk transition. The physical
distinction between these two classes is argued to rest on the presence of
primordial gas in sufficient quantities to dominate the motion of small dust
grains (not the secondary nature of the dust or its level of stirring). This
motivates an observational classification based on the dust spectrum,
empirically defined so that A star debris disks require fractional excesses <3
at 12um and <2000 at 70um. We also propose a hypothesis to test, that the main
sequence planet/planetesimal structures are already in place (but obscured)
during the protoplanetary disk phase. This may be only weakly true if planetary
architectures change until frozen during disk dispersal, or completely false if
planets and planetesimals form during disk dispersal. Five steps in the
transition are discussed: (i) carving an inner hole to form a transition disk;
(ii) depletion of mm-sized dust in outer disk, noting the importance of
determining whether this mass ends up in planetesimals or is collisionally
depleted; (iii) final clearing of inner regions, noting that many mechanisms
replenish moderate hot dust levels at later phases, and likely also operate in
protoplanetary disks; (iv) disappearence of gas, noting recent discoveries of
primordial and secondary gas in debris disks that highlight our ignorance and
its impending enlightenment by ALMA; (v) formation of ring-like planetesimal
structures, noting these are shaped by interactions with planets, and that the
location of planetesimals in protoplanetary disks may be unrelated to the dust
concentrations therein that are set by gas interactions.The authors are grateful for
support from the European Union through ERC grant
number 279973.This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available via Springer at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10509-015-2315-6/fulltext.html
Shaping HR8799's outer dust belt with an unseen planet
HR8799 is a benchmark system for direct imaging studies. It hosts two debris
belts, which lie internally and externally to four giant planets. This paper
considers how the four known planets and a possible fifth planet, interact with
the external population of debris through N-body simulations. We find that when
only the known planets are included, the inner edge of the outer belt predicted
by our simulations is much closer to the outermost planet than recent ALMA
observations suggest. We subsequently include a fifth planet in our simulations
with a range of masses and semi-major axes, which is external to the outermost
known planet. We find that a fifth planet with a mass and semi-major axis of
0.1 and 138au predicts an outer belt that agrees well with ALMA
observations, whilst remaining stable for the lifetime of HR8799 and lying
below current direct imaging detection thresholds. We also consider whether
inward scattering of material from the outer belt can input a significant
amount of mass into the inner belt. We find that for the current age of HR8799,
only 1\% of the mass loss rate of the inner disk can be replenished by
inward scattering. However we find that the higher rate of inward scattering
during the first 10Myr of HR8799 would be expected to cause warm dust
emission at a level similar to that currently observed, which may provide an
explanation for such bright emission in other systems at Myr ages.Comment: 16 pages, 13 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRA
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How to design a planetary system for different scattering outcomes: giant impact sweet spot, maximizing exocomets, scattered discs
This paper considers the dynamics of the scattering of planetesimals or planetary embryos by a planet on a circumstellar orbit. We classify six regions in the planet's mass versus semimajor axis parameter space according to the dominant outcome for scattered objects: ejected, accreted, remaining, escaping, Oort Cloud, and depleted Oort Cloud. We use these outcomes to consider which planetary system architectures maximize the observability of specific signatures, given that signatures should be detected first around systems with optimal architectures (if such systems exist in nature). Giant impact debris is most readily detectable for 0.1–10 M⊕ planets at 1–5 au, depending on the detection method and spectral type. While A stars have putative giant impact debris at 4–6 au consistent with this sweet spot, that of FGK stars is typically ≪1 au contrary to expectations; an absence of 1–3 au giant impact debris could indicate a low frequency of terrestrial planets there. Three principles maximize the cometary influx from exo-Kuiper belts: a chain of closely separated planets interior to the belt, none of which is a Jupiter-like ejector; planet masses not increasing strongly with distance (for a net inward torque on comets); and ongoing replenishment of comets, possibly by embedded low-mass planets. A high Oort Cloud comet influx requires no ejectors and architectures that maximize the Oort Cloud population. Cold debris discs are usually considered classical Kuiper belt analogues. Here we consider the possibility of detecting scattered disc analogues, which could be betrayed by a broad radial profile and lack of small grains, as well as spherical 100–1000 au mini-Oort Clouds. Some implications for escaping planets around young stars, detached planets akin to Sedna, and the formation of super-Earths are also discussed.MCW, AB, and AS acknowledge the support of the European Union through European Research Council grant number 279973. APJ acknowledges support from NASA grant NNX16AI31G. AS is partially supported by funding from the Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds. The Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds is supported by the Pennsylvania State University, the Eberly College of Science, and the Pennsylvania Space Grant Consortium. This research has made use of the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program
Insights into Planet Formation from Debris Disks: II. Giant Impacts in Extrasolar Planetary Systems
Giant impacts refer to collisions between two objects each of which is massive enough to be considered at least a planetary embryo. The putative collision suffered by the proto-Earth that created the Moon is a prime example, though most Solar System bodies bear signatures of such collisions. Current planet formation models predict that an epoch of giant impacts may be inevitable, and observations of debris around other stars are providing mounting evidence that giant impacts feature in the evolution of many planetary systems. This chapter reviews giant impacts, focussing on what we can learn about planet formation by studying debris around other stars. Giant impact debris evolves through mutual collisions and dynamical interactions with planets. General aspects of this evolution are outlined, noting the importance of the collision-point geometry. The detectability of the debris is discussed using the example of the Moon-forming impact. Such debris could be detectable around another star up to 10 Myr post-impact, but model uncertainties could reduce detectability to a few 100 yr window. Nevertheless the 3% of young stars with debris at levels expected during terrestrial planet formation provide valuable constraints on formation models; implications for super-Earth formation are also discussed. Variability recently observed in some bright disks promises to illuminate the evolution during the earliest phases when vapour condensates may be optically thick and acutely affected by the collision-point geometry. The outer reaches of planetary systems may also exhibit signatures of giant impacts, such as the clumpy debris structures seen around some stars.MCW is grateful for support from the European Union through ERC grant number 279973.This is the author accepted manuscript. It is currently under an indefinite embargo pending publication by Springer
A tale of two gyres: Contrasting distributions of dissolved cobalt and iron in the Atlantic Ocean during an Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT-19).
Cobalt (Co) and iron (Fe) are essential for phytoplankton nutrition, and as such constitute a vital link in the marine biological carbon pump. Atmospheric deposition is an important, and in some places the dominant, source of trace elements (TEs) to the global ocean. Dissolved cobalt (dCo) and iron (dFe) were determined along an Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT-19; Oct/Nov 2009) between 50°N and 40°S in the upper 150 m in order to investigate the behaviour and distribution of these two essential, bioactive TEs. During AMT-19, large differences in the distributions of dCo and dFe were observed. In the North Atlantic gyre provinces, extremely low mixed layer dCo concentrations (23 ± 9 pM) were observed, which contrasts with the relatively high mixed layer dFe concentrations (up to 1.0 nM) coincident with the band of highest atmospheric deposition (∼5–30°N). In the South Atlantic gyre, the opposite trend was observed, with relatively high dCo (55 ± 18 pM) observed throughout the water column, but low dFe concentrations (0.29 ± 0.08 nM). Given that annual dust supply is an order of magnitude greater in the North than the South Atlantic, the dCo distribution was somewhat unexpected. However, the distribution of dCo shows similarities with the distribution of phosphate (PO43−) in the euphotic zone of the Atlantic Ocean, where the North Atlantic gyre is characterised by chronically low PO4, and higher concentrations are observed in the South Atlantic gyre (Mather et al., 2008), suggesting the potential for a similar biological control of dCo distributions. Inverse correlations between dCo and Prochlorococcus abundance in the North Atlantic gyre provinces, combined with extremely low dCo where nitrogen fixation rates were highest (∼20–28°N), suggests the dominance of biological controls on dCo distributions. The contrasting dCo and dFe distributions in the North and South Atlantic gyres provides insights into the differences between the dominant controls on the distribution of these two bioactive trace metals in the central Atlantic Ocean
Scars of intense accretion episodes at metal-rich white dwarfs
A re-evaluation of time-averaged accretion rates at DBZ-type white dwarfs points to historical, time-averaged rates significantly higher than the currently observed episodes at their DAZ counterparts. The difference between the ongoing, instantaneous accretion rates witnessed at DAZ white dwarfs, which often exceed 10 8gs -1, and those inferred over the past 10 5-10 6yr for the DBZ stars can be of a few orders of magnitude, and therefore must result from high-rate episodes of tens to hundreds of years so that they remain undetected to date. This paper explores the likelihood that such brief, intense accretion episodes of gas-phase material can account for existing data. For reasonable assumptions about the circumstellar gas, accretion rates approaching or exceeding 10 15gs -1 are possible, similar to rates observed in quiescent cataclysmic variables, and potentially detectable with future X-ray missions or wide-field monitoring facilities. Gaseous debris that is prone to such rapid accretion may be abundant immediately following a tidal disruption event via collisions and sublimation, or if additional bodies impinge upon an extant disc. Particulate disc matter accretes at or near the Poynting-Robertson drag rate for long periods between gas-producing events, consistent with rates inferred for dusty DAZ white dwarfs. In this picture, warm DAZ stars without infrared excesses have rates consistent with accretion from particulate discs that remain undetected. This overall picture has implications for quasi-steady state models of accretion and the derived chemical composition of asteroidal debris in DBZ white dwarfs
An Empirical Planetesimal Belt Radius-Stellar Luminosity Relation
Resolved observations of millimetre-sized dust, tracing larger planetesimals,
have pinpointed the location of 26 Edgeworth-Kuiper belt analogs. We report
that a belt's distance to its host star correlates with the star's
luminosity , following with a low
intrinsic scatter of 17%. Remarkably, our Edgeworth-Kuiper belt in the
Solar System and the two CO snow lines imaged in protoplanetary disks lie close
to this - relation, suggestive of an intrinsic relationship
between protoplanetary disk structures and belt locations. To test the effect
of bias on the relation, we use a Monte Carlo approach and simulate
uncorrelated model populations of belts. We find that observational bias could
produce the slope and intercept of the - relation, but is unable
to reproduce its low scatter. We then repeat the simulation taking into account
the collisional evolution of belts, following the steady state model that fits
the belt population as observed through infrared excesses. This significantly
improves the fit by lowering the scatter of the simulated -
relation; however, this scatter remains only marginally consistent with the one
observed. The inability of observational bias and collisional evolution alone
to reproduce the tight relationship between belt radius and stellar luminosity
could indicate that planetesimal belts form at preferential locations within
protoplanetary disks. The similar trend for CO snow line locations would then
indicate that the formation of planetesimals and/or planets in the outer
regions of planetary systems is linked to the volatility of their building
blocks, as postulated by planet formation models
Using warm dust to constrain unseen planets
Cold outer debris belts orbit a significant fraction of stars, many of which
are planet-hosts. Radiative forces from the star lead to dust particles leaving
the outer belts and spiralling inwards under Poynting-Robertson drag. We
present an empirical model fitted to N-body simulations that allows the fate of
these dust particles when they encounter a planet to be rapidly calculated.
High mass planets eject most particles, whilst dust passes low mass planets
relatively unperturbed. Close-in, high mass planets (hot Jupiters) are best at
accreting dust. The model predicts the accretion rate of dust onto planets
interior to debris belts, with mass accretions rates of up to hundreds of
kilograms per second predicted for hot Jupiters interior to outer debris belts,
when collisional evolution is also taken into account. The model can be used to
infer the presence and likely masses of as yet undetected planets in systems
with outer belts. The non-detection of warm dust with the Large Binocular
Telescope Interferometer (LBTI) around Vega could be explained by the presence
of a single Saturn mass planet, or a chain of lower mass planets. Similarly,
the detection of warm dust in such systems implies the absence of planets above
a quantifiable level, which can be lower than similar limits from direct
imaging. The level of dust detected with LBTI around beta Leo can be used to
rule out the presence of planets more massive than a few Saturn masses outside
of ~5au
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