The Dark Side of High-Quality LMX: Relational Tensions and Their Impacts on Leaders and Members

As one of the most popular approaches to study leadership, the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory focuses on the dyadic relationship between a leader and a member (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). It posits that supervisors develop different forms of exchange relationships with followers (Sparrowe & Liden, 1997). Low quality LMX is more like economic exchange based on mutually agreed on duties, while high quality LMX is characterized by trust, support, loyalty, and commitment (Uhl-Bien & Maslyn, 2003). Past LMX studies have documented and supported many positive outcomes for high-quality LMX subordinates, such as higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, in-role and extra-role performance, and lower levels of stress (Dulebohn et al., 2012; Ferris et al., 2009; Gerstner & Day, 1997). Though it is intriguing to believe that high-quality LMX does only good to members and leaders, there may be more to the story. Being an interpersonal relationship, LMX should suffer the same tensions all interpersonal relations have. Moreover, because relationship power differs between leaders and members, members may face less freedom in choice and greater pressure to maintain the relationship (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003; Inesi, Gruenfeld, & Galinsky, 2012; Rios, Fast, & Gruenfeld, 2015). Indeed, theories indicate that high quality LMX can be stressful to employees due to feelings of uncertainty and lack of control (Henderson, Liden, Glibkowsk, & Chaudhry, 2009; Liden & Graen, 1980). However, such viewpoints mainly serve as theoretical arguments to support the main propositions in the mentioned studies without systematic discussion or empirical support. Beneficial aspects of high-quality LMX still dominate the LMX literature, leaving the potential dark side of high-quality LMX understudied. According to Relational Dialectics Theory (DRT), interpersonal relationships are by nature paradoxical, and the management of dialectical tensions between relational partners is central to the conduct and interpretation of relationship development and loss (Baxter, 1990, 2004; Montgomery & Baxter, 1998). Across a pilot study and two primary studies, this dissertation investigated relational tensions leaders and members experience in high-quality LMX (e.g., high-quality LMX denotes a close connection between leaders and members, but this close connection can detract members’ autonomy when facing leaders’ extra demands and expectations) and their effects on leaders and members. Specifically, the pilot study explored the relational tensions leaders and members experience in LMX through an open-ended survey question and in-depth interviews. In study 1, I developed and validated two scales of LMX tensions (one of leader tensions and one of member tensions) based on the pilot study results and extant literature. Using scales developed, study 2 investigated the influences of LMX tensions on leaders and members. This dissertation contributes to the LMX literature in several ways. First, by demonstrating tensions inherent in high-quality LMX, it illuminates the potential costs for both members and leaders in high LMX relationships, despite the well-supported benefits. Second, as both leaders’ and members’ LMX tensions in high-quality LMX and their outcomes were considered in the hypothesized model, the current dissertation answers the call for more research on “what about leaders?” in LMX (Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997; Wilson, Sin, & Conlon, 2010). Third, according to DRT, relational contradictions drive changes in relationships (Baxter, 2004; Sias, 2006). More specifically, LMX tensions in high-quality LMX can be stressful, which damages leader-member relationship satisfaction and commitment and gives rise to LMX disengagement intentions. Thus, although I will not study this empirically, it still shed light on LMX quality change and decline by examining how LMX tensions relate to intentions to disengage from LMX

Inflammation subtypes in psychosis and their relationships with genetic risk for psychiatric and cardiometabolic disorders

Cardiometabolic disorders have known inflammatory implications, and peripheral measures of inflammation and cardiometabolic disorders are common in persons with psychotic disorders. Inflammatory signatures are also related to neurobiological and behavioral changes in psychosis. Relationships between systemic inflammation and cardiometabolic genetic risk in persons with psychosis have not been examined. Thirteen peripheral inflammatory markers and genome-wide genotyping were assessed in 122 participants (n = 86 psychosis, n = 36 healthy controls) of European ancestry. Cluster analyses of inflammatory markers classified higher and lower inflammation subgroups. Single-trait genetic risk scores (GRS) were constructed for each participant using previously reported GWAS summary statistics for the following traits: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, coronary artery disease, type-2 diabetes, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, and waist-to-hip ratio. Genetic correlations across traits were quantified. Principal component (PC) analysis of the cardiometabolic GRSs generated six PC loadings used in regression models to examine associations with inflammation markers. Functional module discovery explored biological mechanisms of the inflammation association of cardiometabolic GRS genes. A subgroup of 38% persons with psychotic disorders was characterized with higher inflammation status. These higher inflammation individuals had lower BACS scores (p = 0.038) compared to those with lower inflammation. The first PC of the cardiometabolic GRS matrix was related to higher inflammation status in persons with psychotic disorders (OR = 2.037, p = 0.001). Two of eight modules within the functional interaction network of cardiometabolic GRS genes were enriched for immune processes. Cardiometabolic genetic risk may predispose some individuals with psychosis to elevated inflammation which adversely impacts cognition associated with illness

Impact of polygenic risk for coronary artery disease and cardiovascular medication burden on cognitive impairment in psychotic disorders

Background: Cognitive impairment is a core deficit across psychotic disorders, the causes and therapeutics of which remain unclear. Epidemiological observations have suggested associations between cognitive dysfunction in psychotic disorders and cardiovascular risk factors, but an underlying etiology has not been established. Methods: Neuropsychological performance using the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia (BACS) was assessed in 616 individuals of European ancestry (403 psychosis, 213 controls). Polygenic risk scores for coronary artery disease (PRSCAD) were quantified for each participant across 13 p-value thresholds (PT 0.5-5e-8). Cardiovascular and psychotropic medications were categorized for association analyses. Each PRSCAD was examined in relation to the BACS and the optimized PT was confirmed with five-fold cross-validation and independent validation. Functional enrichment analyses were used to identify biological mechanisms linked to PRSCAD-cognition associations. Multiple regression analyses examined PRSCAD under the optimal PT and medication burden in relation to the BACS composite and subtest scores. Results: Higher PRSCAD was associated with lower BACS composite scores (p = 0.001) in the psychosis group, primarily driven by the Verbal Memory subtest (p \u3c 0.001). Genes linked to multiple nervous system related processes and pathways were significantly enriched in PRSCAD. After controlling for PRSCAD, a greater number of cardiovascular medications was also correlated with worse BACS performance in patients with psychotic disorders (p = 0.029). Conclusions: Higher PRSCAD and taking more cardiovascular medications were both significantly associated with cognitive impairment in psychosis. These findings indicate that cardiovascular factors may increase the risk for cognitive dysfunction and related functional outcomes among individuals with psychotic disorders

Arene Selectivity by a Flexible Coordination Polymer Host.

The coordination polymers [Ag4 (O2 CCF3 )4 (phen)3 ]⋅phen⋅arene (1⋅phen⋅arene) (phen=phenazine; arene=toluene, p-xylene or benzene) have been synthesised from the solution phase in a series of arene solvents and crystallographically characterised. By contrast, analogous syntheses from o-xylene and m-xylene as the solvent yield the solvent-free coordination polymer [Ag4 (O2 CCF3 )4 (phen)2 ] (2). Toluene, p-xylene and benzene have been successfully used in mixed-arene syntheses to template the formation of coordination polymers 1⋅phen⋅arene, which incorporate o- or m-xylene. The selectivity of 1⋅phen⋅arene for the arene guests was determined, through pairwise competition experiments, to be p-xylene>toluene≈benzene>o-xylene>m-xylene. The largest selectivity coefficient was determined as 14.2 for p-xylene:m-xylene and the smallest was 1.0 for toluene:benzene

Solvent-vapour-assisted pathways and the role of pre-organization in solid-state transformations of coordination polymers

A family of one-dimensional coordination polymers, [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2(arene)n]·m(arene), 1 (arene = toluene or xylene), have been synthesized and crystallographically characterized. Arene guest loss invokes structural transformations to yield a pair of polymorphic coordination polymers [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2], 2a and/or 2b, with one- and two-dimensional architectures, respectively. The role of pre-organization of the polymer chains of 1 in the selectivity for formation of either polymorph is explored, and the templating effect of toluene and p-xylene over o-xylene or m-xylene in the formation of arene-containing architecture 1 is also demonstrated. The formation of arene-free phase 2b, not accessible in a phase-pure form through other means, is shown to be the sole product of loss of toluene from 1-tol·tol [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2(toluene)]·2(toluene), a phase containing toluene coordinated to Ag(I) in an unusual μ:η1,η1 manner. Solvent-vapour-assisted conversion between the polymorphic coordination polymers and solvent-vapour influence on the conversion of coordination polymers 1 to 2a and 2b is also explored. The transformations have been examined and confirmed by X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy and thermal analyses, including in situ diffraction studies of some transformations

The Dark Side of High-Quality LMX: Relational Tensions and Their Impacts on Leaders and Members

As one of the most popular approaches to study leadership, the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory focuses on the dyadic relationship between a leader and a member (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). It posits that supervisors develop different forms of exchange relationships with followers (Sparrowe & Liden, 1997). Low quality LMX is more like economic exchange based on mutually agreed on duties, while high quality LMX is characterized by trust, support, loyalty, and commitment (Uhl-Bien & Maslyn, 2003). Past LMX studies have documented and supported many positive outcomes for high-quality LMX subordinates, such as higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, in-role and extra-role performance, and lower levels of stress (Dulebohn et al., 2012; Ferris et al., 2009; Gerstner & Day, 1997). Though it is intriguing to believe that high-quality LMX does only good to members and leaders, there may be more to the story. Being an interpersonal relationship, LMX should suffer the same tensions all interpersonal relations have. Moreover, because relationship power differs between leaders and members, members may face less freedom in choice and greater pressure to maintain the relationship (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003; Inesi, Gruenfeld, & Galinsky, 2012; Rios, Fast, & Gruenfeld, 2015). Indeed, theories indicate that high quality LMX can be stressful to employees due to feelings of uncertainty and lack of control (Henderson, Liden, Glibkowsk, & Chaudhry, 2009; Liden & Graen, 1980). However, such viewpoints mainly serve as theoretical arguments to support the main propositions in the mentioned studies without systematic discussion or empirical support. Beneficial aspects of high-quality LMX still dominate the LMX literature, leaving the potential dark side of high-quality LMX understudied. According to Relational Dialectics Theory ( DRT), interpersonal relationships are by nature paradoxical, and the management of dialectical tensions between relational partners is central to the conduct and interpretation of relationship development and loss (Baxter, 1990, 2004; Montgomery & Baxter, 1998). Across a pilot study and two primary studies, this dissertation investigated relational tensions leaders and members experience in high-quality LMX (e.g., high-quality LMX denotes a close connection between leaders and members, but this close connection can detract members’ autonomy when facing leaders’ extra demands and expectations) and their effects on leaders and members. Specifically, the pilot study explored the relational tensions leaders and members experience in LMX through an open-ended survey question and in-depth interviews. In study 1, I developed and validated two scales of LMX tensions (one of leader tensions and one of member tensions) based on the pilot study results and extant literature. Using scales developed, study 2 investigated the influences of LMX tensions on leaders and members. This dissertation contributes to the LMX literature in several ways. First, by demonstrating tensions inherent in high-quality LMX, it illuminates the potential costs for both members and leaders in high LMX relationships, despite the well-supported benefits. Second, as both leaders’ and members’ LMX tensions in high-quality LMX and their outcomes were considered in the hypothesized model, the current dissertation answers the call for more research on “what about leaders?” in LMX (Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997; Wilson, Sin, & Conlon, 2010). Third, according to DRT, relational contradictions drive changes in relationships (Baxter, 2004; Sias, 2006). More specifically, LMX tensions in high-quality LMX can be stressful, which damages leader-member relationship satisfaction and commitment and gives rise to LMX disengagement intentions. Thus, although I will not study this empirically, it still shed light on LMX quality change and decline by examining how LMX tensions relate to intentions to disengage from LMX

Says what in your photos? The impacts of photographic narratives on medical crowdfunding performance

Online medical crowdfunding brings new hopes to families who cannot afford to pay for their medical expenses. As photos play a dominant role in persuasion, this study investigates the impact of photographic narratives on online medical crowdfunding campaigns. From the perspective of theory of persuasive communication, photos are categorized into three persuasive types: pathos (emotional-related), ethos (credible-related), and logos (rational-related). Using a unique dataset constructed from a medical crowdfunding website, the results show that both pathos (emotional-related) and ethos (credible-related) photos have positive persuasion effects. For logos (rational-related) photos, photographic narratives on medical expenses have a negative persuasion effect, while photographic narratives on financial disadvantages have no significant effect on medical crowdfunding performance. Our study provides important theoretical and practical implications

Who Cares About Demands–Abilities Fit? Moderating Effects of Goal Orientation on Recruitment and Organizational Entry Outcomes

The authors conduct three studies to systematically examine how avoiding and learning goal orientation (AGO and LGO) influence relationships between perceived demands-abilities (DA) fit and critical outcomes during three organizational entry stages. Study 1, a multi-level study using a series of mock job advertisements, shows that participant likelihood of applying for jobs for which they perceive higher DA fit increases when AGO is stronger. Study 2 finds a stronger positive relationship between perceived DA fit and internship satisfaction among interns with a stronger AGO. Study 3 finds a stronger positive relationship between perceived DA fit and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) among new organizational entrants with a stronger AGO. Implications and future research directions regarding the importance of goal orientation during job search and organizational entry are discussed