Ethnobotanical survey of plants used for the treatment of constipation within Nkonkobe Municipality of South Africa

Constipation is the commonest gastrointestinal complaint in most developed and poor countries including  South Africa. An ethnobotanical survey of plants used by herbalists, traditional healers and rural dwellers for the treatment of constipation was conducted in the Nkonkobe Municipality, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study revealed 10 plant species belonging to eight families, namely; Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Sapindaceae, Dioscoreaceae Polygonaceae and Longaniaceae. Out of these, the member of Asphodelaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Amaryllidaceae were the most commonly used. The use of decoction of leaves and roots are the most preferred methods of herbal preparation. In all cases, the treatment involved oral administration of the extracts 2 to 3 times per day, for a short period of time, but usually not more than two weeks, or as soon as the condition disappears. Aloe ferox, Boophane disticha, Alepidea amatymbica and Artemisia afra were repeatedly mentioned by the traditional healers as the most widely used for the treatment of constipation in the study area. There was a general belief in the efficacy of the extracts either prepared as infusion, decoction or poultice.Key words: Medicinal plants, herbalist, traditional healer, constipation

Alepidea amatymbica

Alepidea amatymbica is an important medicinal plant in Southern Africa with a long history of traditional use for the management of conditions like colds, coughs, sore throat, influenza, asthma, and abdominal cramps. Despite the much acclaimed traditional uses of the plant, there is a dearth of scientific information on the review of this plant. Hence, this review is aimed at providing information on the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of A. amatymbica. This review uses all the synonyms of the plant obtained from the plant list. Google scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, and Scopus were made use of in addition to the University of Fort Hare’s online databases. All the phytochemical studies on Alepidea amatymbica obtained from the literature reported the presence of kaurene-type diterpenoids and their derivatives. Pharmacological areas identified on A. amatymbica fresh and dried extract include antibacterial, antifungal, sedative, astringent, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, antihelminthes, antihypertensive, anti-HIV, and diuretic activities. Literature search on A. amatymbica revealed the use of cell line, brine shrimps, and rats for the determination of the toxicity in the plant. Clinical trials and product development to fully exploit the medicinal value are also required to validate its folklore use in traditional medicine

Toxicity assessment of aqueous extract of Curtisia dentata (Burm.f) C.A. Sm: stem bark in male Wistar rats

Purpose: To investigate the acute and sub-acute toxicity effects of aqueous stem bark extract in male Wistar rats.Methods: For the acute toxicity study, a single dose of 5000 mg/kg body weight of the extract was orally administered to the animals by oral gavage and the rats thereafter were observed for mortality and toxicity signs for 14 days. In the sub-acute toxicity test, the graded doses (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight) of the aqueous extract of CD were given to the animals once daily for 28 days. In each of the experiment, the food and water intake, body weight changes, relative organ weights, hematological, clinical biochemistry and histopathological parameters were evaluated.Results: In both the acute and sub-acute toxicity studies, CD did not show any visible signs of toxicity. There were also no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the control and CD-treated rats for all the investigated parameters; no obvious gross pathological features in the kidney, heart and liver of all the experimental animals were observed.Conclusion: The findings indicate that the extract is not toxic when administered at the tested doses and within the exposure period. Thus, the aqueous stem bark extract of CD may be adjudged relatively safe and pharmacologically non-toxic in Wistar rats.Keywords: Curtisia dentata, Hematopoietic, Histopathology, Toxicit

Acute and Subacute Toxicological Evaluation of the Aerial Extract of Monsonia angustifolia

The acute and subacute toxicity profile of the aerial extract of Monsonia angustifolia in Wistar rats was evaluated. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 420 guideline was adopted in the acute toxicity testing with a single oral dose of 5000 mg/kg (b.w.). For the 28-day daily oral dosing, the extract was administered at 75, 150, and 300 mg/kg b.w.; 1% ethanol in sterile distilled water was used as control. Clinical toxicity signs were subsequently evaluated. At a single dose of 5000 mg/kg b.w. the extract elicited no treatment-related signs of toxicity in the animals during the 14 days of experimental period. In the subacute toxicity, there was no significant difference in hematological, renal, and liver function indices. However, dose-dependent significant increases were observed on the plasma concentrations of white blood cell and platelet counts of the treated animals compared to the control group. While cage observations revealed no treatment-facilitated signs of toxicity, histopathological examinations of the kidneys and liver also showed no obvious lesions and morphological changes. These results suggest that the extract may be labelled and classified as safe and practically nontoxic within the doses and period of investigation in this study

The efficacy and toxicological effects of aloe ferox mill. used in the management of constipation in Nkonkobe municipality of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa

Herbal remedies are commonly used in developing countries for the treatment of various diseases, including constipation. The rationale for utilizing medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases rested largely on the belief that they are safe and free of side effects. However, there is limited scientific evidence on the safety and efficacy of these herbal medicines to back up their continued therapeutic application. Aloe ferox Mill. (Aspodelaceae), known as Cape aloe, locally called ikhala is a medicinal plant used by the people of the Eastern Cape Province for the treatment of gastrointestinal problems and constipation. The plant is a perennial shrub with thick succulent leaves bearing brown thorns on the margin and bright orange flowers arranged in oval lanceolate. It occurs in all weather in bush veld, road side, gardens and undisturbed places. According to the ethnomedicinal information, A. ferox is used as purgative. This research project was therefore designed to evaluate its ability in the treatment of constipation and to investigate its possible toxicological property. At the beginning of this programme, a survey of plants used for the treatment of constipation in Nkonkobe Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province was carried out using a questionnaire, which was administered to herbalists, traditional healers and rural dwellers. The study revealed 10 plant species from 8 families that are used for the treatment of constipation in the province. Four plants, Aloe ferox Mill, Boophone distischa L.f Herb, Alepidea amatybica Eckl and Artemisia afra Jacq, were repeatedly mentioned. Based on the frequency of usage, perceived efficacy and availability to the rural dwellers and the traditional healers, Aloe ferox was the most commonly used of the plants for the treatment of constipation. The plant was thus, chosen for the study. The invivo laxative effect of the aqueous extract of Aloe ferox in the treatment of loperamide-induced constipation in Wistar rats was investigated at varying concentrations. The leaf extract at all the dosages investigated (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight) improved intestinal motility, increased fecal volume and normalized body weight in the constipated rats. This was an indication of its laxative properties. However, the laxative property of the herb at 200 mg/kg body weight of the extract showed best efficacy and compares favourably well with senokot, a standard laxative drug. These findings have therefore, lent scientific credence to the folkloric use of the herb by the people of the Eastern Cape of South Africa as a laxative agent. Toxicological evaluation of aqueous leaf extract of Aloe ferox in loperamide-induced constipation was studied at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight. The oral administration of the extracts did not show any significant effect on the liver and kidney body weight ratios as well as the kidney and liver function indices. The extracts, at all the dosages investigated, did not alter the levels of creatinine, uric acid, urea, calcium and potassium ions. Similarly, the levels of total protein, albumin, bilirubin and gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) were not significantly different from the control. The plant extract appreciably normalized the elevated activities of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) in the untreated constipated rats following treatment with the extract. The extract did not show a significant effect on the hematological parameters except for the increase in the lymphocyte count in the untreated constipated rats, which was attenuated after administering the herb. ThThe available evidence in this study suggests that A. ferox may be safe as an oral remedy for constipation. Generally, the effect of the extract compared favourably well with senokot, a recommended drug for the treatment of constipation. The antioxidant activities against 1, 1 diphenyl- 2 picrylhydrazl (DPPH), 2,2’ – azinobis [3- ethylbenzothiazoline -6- sulfonic acid] diammonium salt (ABTS), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Nitric oxide (NO), lipid peroxidation and the ferric reducing agents were investigated spectrophotometrically. Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, total phenols, flavonoids, flavonols and proanthocyanidin were also determined to assess their effects on the antioxidants activity of this plant. The phytochemical content of the ethanol and acetone extracts were consistently high compared to other solvents extracts. The level of tannins was not significant (P > 0.05) as compared with other solvent extracts. The free radical scavenging activity of the extracts was high even at lower concentrations (0.025 mg/ml) except in DPPH and lipid peroxidation. The ferric reducing potential of the extracts was concentration dependent and significantly different from Vitamin C and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) that were used as standard drugs. The present study showed a high level of scavenging activity of the leaf extracts of Aloe ferox in all the solvent extracts. Both ethanol and methanolic extract showed potent antioxidant activities than acetone and aqueous extracts. The study indicated that the leaf extracts of Aloe ferox might be a valuable source of natural antioxidant for both medicine and food industries. A. ferox leaf consists of the gel, latex and mesophyll layer; however, the main active constituents of the latex and the leaf exudate of Aloe ferox are anthraquinones which are believed to be responsible for the laxative property. The laxative compound in Aloe ferox leaf extract was isolated and characterized by extracting the plant material in methanol and extract suspended in distilled water. Partitioning was done with n-hexane, ethyl acetate and butanol respectively and was co-spotted with the over-the-counter (OTC) laxative drugs. This led to the successive column chromatography and thin layer chromatography (TLC) of the most active ethyl acetate fraction on silica gel with benzene/ethanol/ammonia hydroxide (BEA: 90:10:1), ethyl acetate/methanol/water (EMW: 40:5.4:5) and chloroform/ethyl acetate/formic acid (CEF: 50:40:10) as the mobile phase. The successive chromatograph and TLC afforded two compounds of Rf 0.420 (blue) and 0.831 (yellow) with the over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. These compounds were not totally elucidated due to their small quantity and instability. However, hydroxyl (OH) and carboxyl groups (COOH) was established as common to the extracted compounds, which might be responsible for the biological activity recorded for the plant extract

AN INVENTORY OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS USED AS ANTHELMINTICS IN AMATHOLE DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY OF THE EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA

Background: Intestinal parasitic infections are among the most common chronic human infections in developing countries; particularly within the tropical and subtropical regions. An ethno-botanical survey was carried out to document medicinal plants used for the treatment of intestinal worms in Amathole District Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province (ECP), South Africa Materials and methods: A questionnaire-guided interview of the indigenous people by random sampling was done with the help of an interpreter during the survey of the district. Results: Medicinal plants mostly used for traditional management of intestinal worms were selected from 13 plant families: Alliaceae, Anacardiaceae, Asphodelaceae, Asteraceae, Crassulaceae, Dracaenaceae, Fabaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Lamiaceae, Longaniaceae, Punicaceae, Polygonaceae, and Verbenaceae. Out of these, Hypoxis hererocallidea (17%), Strychonos henningsii (14%), Rumex lanceolatus (12%), Ozoroa mucronata (9%) and Acacia karoo (9%) belonging to the families Hypoxidaceae, Longaniaceae, Polygonaceae, Anacardiaceae and Fabaceae respectively were found as the most cited, the least cited plant was Cotyledon orbiculata (2%). Leaves and roots from these plants were found to commonly used (36%), followed by the root (27%), bark (14%), the bulb and stem (9%), and rhizome collectively constitute (5%). Oral method administration by decoction (50%) and infusion (39%) was however found to be a common method by respondents. Conclusion: The current study however showed that ethno-pharmacological knowledge of the traditional healers in ECP largely depends on naturally growing species, documentation of which will go a long way in validating the therapeutic uses and safety of these plants as anthelmintic plants

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HYPERTENSION AND DIABETES - A REVIEW

Background: The use of alternative therapies like herbs and dietary supplements is very common among hypertensive and diabetic patients all over the globe. Hypertension is a silent disease that causes increase in cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, renal morbidity and mortality whereas diabetic complications cause heart attack, stroke, blindness and kidney disease. These are serious and chronic metabolic disorders that have a significant impact on the health, quality of life, and life expectancy of patients, as well as on the health care systems. Orthodox drugs used for the treatment of hypertension and diabetes produce side effects such as headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, constipation, diarrhea, weakness, fatigue and erectile dysfunction. The need for considering alternate therapies in the form of dietary supplements known to promote good health, having little or no side effects therefore arises. Materials and methods: This review was carried out using comprehensive and systematic literature reports on the concurrent use of dietary supplements in the management of diabetes and hypertension. Empirical searches were conducted using Google scholar (http:// scholar. google.com), and Science Direct (http://www.science direct.com). In addition to these databases, the University database was also used. Searches were also undertaken using keyword combinations such as dietary supplements and the names of the diseases in question. Result and Discussion: This review chronicled the therapeutic values of vitamins, minerals, amino acids, fruits, vegetables, herbs and other botanicals used as dietary supplements. Results show that these supplements provided better and safe substitutes to toxic and expensive conventional drugs. Generally dietary supplements are free from major side effects, readily available and affordable. It is envisaged that the use of dietary supplement will promote good health and improve the status of hypertensive and diabetic patients. Conclusion: Medical doctors are therefore encouraged to incorporate dietary supplements into the regimen employed for hypertension and diabetes management

THE FOLIAR ANATOMY AND MICROMORPHOLOGY OF ALOE FEROX MILL. (ASPHODELACEAE)

Background: The genus Aloe has been the subject of several chemotaxonomic and phytochemical investigations. Aloe ferox is an important source of biologically active compounds like anthrones, chromones, pyrones, and flavonoids. It is a plant used extensively in traditional medicine. Despite the myriad of studies on the pharmacological profile of the plant, there still exists a dearth of scientific literature on the anatomical and morphological attributes of this important medicinal plant. Materials and methods: Hence, the objective of this study was to examine the foliar anatomy and micromorphological characteristics of A. ferox using light microscope and scanning electron microscope and to determine the elemental composition of the leaf sections by energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. Results: Epidermal cells varied from round, square to hexagonal, with distinctive anticlinal walls and sunken stomata, equally distributed on both the adaxial and abaxial surfaces were observed. There were vertically elongated palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll layer. The EDXS analysis revealed Ca, K, S, Al, Mg, and Si as the major constituents of crystals present in the mesophyll. Conclusion: Information on the foliar anatomy and micromorphology can further enlightened our perceptions on the inherent interrelationships between structure and function as regards the synthesis and secretion of bioactive secondary metabolites by plants

Effects of Ficus carica paste on constipation induced by a high-protein feed and movement restriction in beagles

Constipation is one of the most common functional digestive complaints worldwide. We investigated the laxative effects of figs (Ficus carica L) in a beagle model of constipation induced by high protein diet and movement restriction. The experiments were consecutively conducted over 9 weeks divided into 3 periods of 3 weeks each. All 15 beagles were subjected to a non-treatment (control) period, a constipation induction period, and a fig paste treatment period. We administered fig paste (12 g/kg daily, by gavage) for 3 weeks following a 3-week period of constipation induction in dogs. Segmental colonic transit time (CTT) was measured by counting radiopaque markers (Kolomark) using a radiograph performed every 6 h after feeding Kolomark capsules, until capsules were no longer observed. Fig paste significantly increased fecal quantity in constipated dogs, and segmental CTT was also reduced following fig paste administration. There were no significant differences in feed intake, water intake, body weight, or blood test results, between the constipation and fig paste administration periods. Our results demonstrate that fig is an effective treatment for constipation in beagles. Specifically, stool weight increased and segmental CTT decreased. Fig pastes may be useful as a complementary medicine in humans suffering from chronic constipation