Same but different: how agency modulates pain perception

Why is analgesic treatment more effective when it is self-administered? Strube et al. compare two possible accounts and show that the effect of agency on perception is linked to a shift in expectation (prior) rather than to reduced likelihood precision, highlighting that agency has a profound impact on the entire perceptual process

Neural underpinnings of preferential pain learning and the modulatory role of fear

Due to its unique biological relevance, pain-related learning might differ from learning from other aversive experiences. This functional magnetic resonance imaging study compared neural mechanisms underlying the acquisition and extinction of different threats in healthy humans. We investigated whether cue-pain associations are acquired faster and extinguished slower than cue associations with an equally unpleasant tone. Additionally, we studied the modulatory role of stimulus-related fear. Therefore, we used a differential conditioning paradigm, in which somatic heat pain stimuli and unpleasantness-matched auditory stimuli served as US. Our results show stronger acquisition learning for pain- than tone-predicting cues, which was augmented in participants with relatively higher levels of fear of pain. These behavioral findings were paralleled by activation of brain regions implicated in threat processing (insula, amygdala) and personal significance (ventromedial prefrontal cortex). By contrast, extinction learning seemed to be less dependent on the threat value of the US, both on the behavioral and neural levels. Amygdala activity, however, scaled with pain-related fear during extinction learning. Our findings on faster and stronger (i.e. “preferential”) pain learning and the role of fear of pain are consistent with the biological relevance of pain and may be relevant to the development or maintenance of chronic pain

The neural basis of intuitive and counterintuitive moral judgment

Neuroimaging studies on moral decision-making have thus far largely focused on differences between moral judgments with opposing utilitarian (well-being maximizing) and deontological (duty-based) content. However, these studies have investigated moral dilemmas involving extreme situations, and did not control for two distinct dimensions of moral judgment: whether or not it is intuitive (immediately compelling to most people) and whether it is utilitarian or deontological in content. By contrasting dilemmas where utilitarian judgments are counterintuitive with dilemmas in which they are intuitive, we were able to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to identify the neural correlates of intuitive and counterintuitive judgments across a range of moral situations. Irrespective of content (utilitarian/deontological), counterintuitive moral judgments were associated with greater difficulty and with activation in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, suggesting that such judgments may involve emotional conflict; intuitive judgments were linked to activation in the visual and premotor cortex. In addition, we obtained evidence that neural differences in moral judgment in such dilemmas are largely due to whether they are intuitive and not, as previously assumed, to differences between utilitarian and deontological judgments. Our findings therefore do not support theories that have generally associated utilitarian and deontological judgments with distinct neural systems

Trait anxiety is associated with hidden state inference during aversive reversal learning

Updating beliefs in changing environments can be driven by gradually adapting expectations or by relying on inferred hidden states (i.e. contexts), and changes therein. Previous work suggests that increased reliance on context could underly fear relapse phenomena that hinder clinical treatment of anxiety disorders. We test whether trait anxiety variations in a healthy population influence how much individuals rely on hidden-state inference. In a Pavlovian learning task, participants observed cues that predicted an upcoming electrical shock with repeatedly changing probability, and were asked to provide expectancy ratings on every trial. We show that trait anxiety is associated with steeper expectation switches after contingency reversals and reduced oddball learning. Furthermore, trait anxiety is related to better fit of a state inference, compared to a gradual learning, model when contingency changes are large. Our findings support previous work suggesting hidden-state inference as a mechanism behind anxiety-related to fear relapse phenomena

Trait anxiety is associated with hidden state inference during aversive reversal learning

Updating beliefs in changing environments can be driven by gradually adapting expectations or by relying on inferred hidden states (i.e. contexts), and changes therein. Previous work suggests that increased reliance on context could underly fear relapse phenomena that hinder clinical treatment of anxiety disorders. We test whether trait anxiety variations in a healthy population influence how much individuals rely on hidden-state inference. In a Pavlovian learning task, participants observed cues that predicted an upcoming electrical shock with repeatedly changing probability, and were asked to provide expectancy ratings on every trial. We show that trait anxiety is associated with steeper expectation switches after contingency reversals and reduced oddball learning. Furthermore, trait anxiety is related to better fit of a state inference, compared to a gradual learning, model when contingency changes are large. Our findings support previous work suggesting hidden-state inference as a mechanism behind anxiety-related to fear relapse phenomena

Dissociable Neural Mechanisms Underlying the Modulation of Pain and Anxiety? An fMRI Pilot Study

The down-regulation of pain through beliefs is commonly discussed as a form of emotion regulation. In line with this interpretation, the analgesic effect has been shown to co-occur with reduced anxiety and increased activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), which is a key region of emotion regulation. This link between pain and anxiety modulation raises the question whether the two effects are rooted in the same neural mechanism. In this pilot fMRI study, we compared the neural basis of the analgesic and anxiolytic effect of two types of threat modulation: a “behavioral control” paradigm, which involves the ability to terminate a noxious stimulus, and a “safety signaling” paradigm, which involves visual cues that signal the threat (or absence of threat) that a subsequent noxious stimulus might be of unusually high intensity. Analgesia was paralleled by VLPFC activity during behavioral control. Safety signaling engaged elements of the descending pain control system, including the rostral anterior cingulate cortex that showed increased functional connectivity with the periaqueductal gray and VLPFC. Anxiety reduction, in contrast, scaled with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during behavioral control but had no distinct neural signature during safety signaling. Our pilot data therefore suggest that analgesic and anxiolytic effects are instantiated in distinguishable neural mechanisms and differ between distinct stress- and pain-modulatory approaches, supporting the recent notion of multiple pathways subserving top-down modulation of the pain experience. Additional studies in larger cohorts are needed to follow up on these preliminary findings

Reduction of aversive learning rates in Pavlovian conditioning by angiotensin II antagonist losartan: a randomized controlled trial

Background: Angiotensin receptor blockade has been linked to aspects of aversive learning and memory formation and to the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom development. Methods: We investigated the influence of the angiotensin receptor blocker losartan on aversive Pavlovian conditioning using a probabilistic learning paradigm. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design, we tested 45 (18 female) healthy volunteers during a baseline session, after application of losartan or placebo (drug session), and during a follow-up session. During each session, participants engaged in a task in which they had to predict the probability of an electrical stimulation on every trial while the true shock contingencies switched repeatedly between phases of high and low shock threat. Computational reinforcement learning models were used to investigate learning dynamics. Results: Acute administration of losartan significantly reduced participants’ adjustment during both low-to-high and high-to-low threat changes. This was driven by reduced aversive learning rates in the losartan group during the drug session compared with baseline. The 50-mg drug dose did not induce reduction of blood pressure or change in reaction times, ruling out a general reduction in attention and engagement. Decreased adjustment of aversive expectations was maintained at a follow-up session 24 hours later. Conclusions: This study shows that losartan acutely reduces Pavlovian learning in aversive environments, thereby highlighting a potential role of the renin-angiotensin system in anxiety development

Treating breathlessness via the brain: changes in brain activity over a course of pulmonary rehabilitation

Breathlessness in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is often discordant with airway pathophysiology ("over-perception"). Pulmonary rehabilitation profoundly affects breathlessness, without influencing lung function. Learned associations influence brain mechanisms of sensory perception. We hypothesised that improvements in breathlessness with pulmonary rehabilitation may be explained by changing neural representations of learned associations.In 31 patients with COPD, we tested how pulmonary rehabilitation altered the relationship between brain activity during a breathlessness-related word-cue task (using functional magnetic resonance imaging), and clinical and psychological measures of breathlessness.Changes in ratings of breathlessness word cues positively correlated with changes in activity in the insula and anterior cingulate cortex. Changes in ratings of breathlessness-anxiety negatively correlated with activations in attention regulation and motor networks. Baseline activity in the insula, anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex correlated with improvements in breathlessness and breathlessness-anxiety.Pulmonary rehabilitation is associated with altered neural responses related to learned breathlessness associations, which can ultimately influence breathlessness perception. These findings highlight the importance of targeting learned associations within treatments for COPD, demonstrating how neuroimaging may contribute to patient stratification and more successful personalised therapy

Microstructural plasticity in nociceptive pathways after spinal cord injury.

OBJECTIVE To track the interplay between (micro-) structural changes along the trajectories of nociceptive pathways and its relation to the presence and intensity of neuropathic pain (NP) after spinal cord injury (SCI). METHODS A quantitative neuroimaging approach employing a multiparametric mapping protocol was used, providing indirect measures of myelination (via contrasts such as magnetisation transfer (MT) saturation, longitudinal relaxation (R1)) and iron content (via effective transverse relaxation rate (R2*)) was used to track microstructural changes within nociceptive pathways. In order to characterise concurrent changes along the entire neuroaxis, a combined brain and spinal cord template embedded in the statistical parametric mapping framework was used. Multivariate source-based morphometry was performed to identify naturally grouped patterns of structural variation between individuals with and without NP after SCI. RESULTS In individuals with NP, lower R1 and MT values are evident in the primary motor cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, while increases in R2* are evident in the cervical cord, periaqueductal grey (PAG), thalamus and anterior cingulate cortex when compared with pain-free individuals. Lower R1 values in the PAG and greater R2* values in the cervical cord are associated with NP intensity. CONCLUSIONS The degree of microstructural changes across ascending and descending nociceptive pathways is critically implicated in the maintenance of NP. Tracking maladaptive plasticity unravels the intimate relationships between neurodegenerative and compensatory processes in NP states and may facilitate patient monitoring during therapeutic trials related to pain and neuroregeneration