A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis of Levels of Social Development and Gender Stratification

There is a current debate in social science literature, in Marxist theory, and in Feminist theory on the role of gender in affecting the form of inequality. Particular emphasis is placed on the controversy over whether or not women suffer universal exploitation and oppression. The debate over the role of gender in the stratification process is further complicated by a division in orientation: some consider gender inequality to be conditioned by relations of production or distribution that arise historically, and therefore are not universal (Engles 1968; Friedl 1978; Sacks 1974; Sanday 1974); while others trace it ultimately to fundamental biological differences, which are universal (Chodorow 1978; Collins 1971; Murphy and Murphy 1974; Tiger 1968.) Research in both of these areas has tended to be either single case studies or controlled cross-cultural comparative studies. The findings have suggested that gender may be an important variable in all systems of stratification (MacCormack and Strathern 1980; Rosaldo and Lamphere 1974; Schlegel 1977; Tiger 1968). In spite of the growing support for the existence of gender as an important variable in all systems of stratification, there has been little large scale cross-cultural comparative research. A cross-sectional study incorporating data from numerous cultures would allow a more complete examination of the role of gender and stratification systems. In addition, the varying role of gender in cultures at different levels of development and with varying systems of stratification can be examined in this type of research. By using George Murdock\u27s 1967 Ethnographic Atlas, which contains information on 1170 societies, it is possible to conduct a large scale cross-cultural comparative study in which the relative degree of gender inequality is compared to levels of development across cultures. Levels of development can be determined by examining economic activities, the sexual differentiation in the division of labor, and by comparing rights of ownership and the use of resources to the control of the productions of goods for use. The latter analysis is useful when examining egalitarian societies based on kin relations. It will be possible to examine more closely the relative degree of gender inequality to levels of development by looking at both egalitarian and stratified societies. Whereas some researchers accept the assumption that egalitarian societies produce solely for subsistence (Berreman 1981; Leacock 1978) this study focuses on the assumption that relations of production contribute to stratification or equality. As such, egalitarian societies may take on the role of stratification. By relying on the extensive geographical, social and economic information contained in the Ethnographic Atlas, the research questions examine if there is a positive correlation between degrees of gender inequality and levels of development. If there are few correlations between gender inequality and levels of development it will be useful to examine if the degree of gender inequality is affected by variables independent of levels of development

Lessons from the Field: Clinicians’ Perceptions of Treating Complex Trauma in Siblings

This research set out to explore how clinicians are currently addressing treatment of siblings. The purpose of this paper is to explore clinicians’ perceptions of how to treat siblings who have suffered complex trauma. The research shows that there is a growing need to look at this issue, as in 2011 there were 3.4 million reports to Child Protective Services (CPS) in regards to 6.2 million children. Of those 6.2 million, 2.0 million received a CPS response (United Department of Human and Health Services, 2011). “Complex trauma” is a term defined, for the sake of this paper, as the exposure to multiple traumatic events, often of an intrusive, interpersonal nature. Complex trauma frequently does not affect just one child, but often several victims within a family. Children are part of a larger system existing of their family, school, community, and are impacted by their environment. More than one sibling in a family often has symptoms of complex trauma, but treatment is typically focused on the child who has the more obvious behaviors. The research will rely on the Developmental Repair Model as a conceptual framework that guided interview questions and informed the researcher of one particular treatment modality to use with siblings. Salient findings revolved around themes such as sibling as a co-regulator, joining, sense of self, and sibling dynamics. The study concluded with a recommendation for further research to explore the outcomes of placing the Developmental Repair model within an agency or school and measuring its success. The research also has implications for social workers in teaching educators to focus more on what is behind the behaviors the schools are seeing, and joining with a child to establish safety and trust

A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis of Levels of Social Development and Gender Stratification

There is a current debate in social science literature, in Marxist theory, and in Feminist theory on the role of gender in affecting the form of inequality. Particular emphasis is placed on the controversy over whether or not women suffer universal exploitation and oppression. The debate over the role of gender in the stratification process is further complicated by a division in orientation: some consider gender inequality to be conditioned by relations of production or distribution that arise historically, and therefore are not universal (Engles 1968; Friedl 1978; Sacks 1974; Sanday 1974); while others trace it ultimately to fundamental biological differences, which are universal (Chodorow 1978; Collins 1971; Murphy and Murphy 1974; Tiger 1968.) Research in both of these areas has tended to be either single case studies or controlled cross-cultural comparative studies. The findings have suggested that gender may be an important variable in all systems of stratification (MacCormack and Strathern 1980; Rosaldo and Lamphere 1974; Schlegel 1977; Tiger 1968). In spite of the growing support for the existence of gender as an important variable in all systems of stratification, there has been little large scale cross-cultural comparative research. A cross-sectional study incorporating data from numerous cultures would allow a more complete examination of the role of gender and stratification systems. In addition, the varying role of gender in cultures at different levels of development and with varying systems of stratification can be examined in this type of research. By using George Murdock\u27s 1967 Ethnographic Atlas, which contains information on 1170 societies, it is possible to conduct a large scale cross-cultural comparative study in which the relative degree of gender inequality is compared to levels of development across cultures. Levels of development can be determined by examining economic activities, the sexual differentiation in the division of labor, and by comparing rights of ownership and the use of resources to the control of the productions of goods for use. The latter analysis is useful when examining egalitarian societies based on kin relations. It will be possible to examine more closely the relative degree of gender inequality to levels of development by looking at both egalitarian and stratified societies. Whereas some researchers accept the assumption that egalitarian societies produce solely for subsistence (Berreman 1981; Leacock 1978) this study focuses on the assumption that relations of production contribute to stratification or equality. As such, egalitarian societies may take on the role of stratification. By relying on the extensive geographical, social and economic information contained in the Ethnographic Atlas, the research questions examine if there is a positive correlation between degrees of gender inequality and levels of development. If there are few correlations between gender inequality and levels of development it will be useful to examine if the degree of gender inequality is affected by variables independent of levels of development

Development of a sensitive method to extract and detect low numbers of Cryptosporidium oocysts from adult cattle faecal samples:results from the MRC ALL97 clinical trial

AbstractCryptosporidium transmission studies to date have concluded that adult cattle are not a significant source of oocysts contributing to clinical cryptosporidiosis in calves on farm. However current methods of sample processing have been optimised for calf faecal samples and may be less sensitive when used on adult samples due to lower numbers of oocysts and larger size of samples. A modified and novel method of oocyst extraction and concentration was developed and applied in an experiment involving spiking adult cattle faecal samples with known concentrations of Cryptosporidium oocysts. The results showed an increased sensitivity of detection from 100oocysts/g of faecal sample using conventional protocols to 5oocysts/g using the newly developed method. As it is important to be able to accurately assess the contribution of adult ruminants to the transmission of Cryptosporidium, both on farm and in the environment, the development of the techniques described here is likely to make an important contribution to Cryptosporidium transmission studies in future and in subsequent control strategies aimed at the reduction of Cryptosporidium infection in calves on farm

Bipolar Disorder and the TCI: Higher Self-Transcendence in Bipolar Disorder Compared to Major Depression

Personality traits are potential endophenotypes for genetic studies of psychiatric disorders. One personality theory which demonstrates strong heritability is Cloninger's psychobiological model measured using the temperament and character inventory (TCI). 277 individuals who completed the TCI questionnaire as part of the South Island Bipolar Study were also interviewed to assess for lifetime psychiatric diagnoses. Four groups were compared, bipolar disorder (BP), type 1 and 2, MDD (major depressive disorder), and nonaffected relatives of a proband with BP. With correction for mood state, total harm avoidance (HA) was higher than unaffected in both MDD and BP groups, but the mood disorder groups did not differ from each other. However, BP1 individuals had higher self-transcendence (ST) than those with MDD and unaffected relatives. HA may reflect a trait marker of mood disorders whereas high ST may be specific to BP. As ST is heritable, genes that affect ST may be of relevance for vulnerability to BP

Clinical stakeholders' opinions on the use of selective decontamination of the digestive tract in critically ill patients in intensive care units : an international Delphi study

Peer reviewedPublisher PD

The effect of intellectual ability on functional activation in a neurodevelopmental disorder: preliminary evidence from multiple fMRI studies in Williams syndrome

BACKGROUND: Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder caused by the deletion of approximately 25 genes at 7q11.23 that involves mild to moderate intellectual disability (ID). When using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare individuals with ID to typically developing individuals, there is a possibility that differences in IQ contribute to between-group differences in BOLD signal. If IQ is correlated with BOLD signal, then group-level analyses should adjust for IQ, or else IQ should be matched between groups. If, however, IQ is not correlated with BOLD signal, no such adjustment or criteria for matching (and exclusion) based on IQ is necessary. METHODS: In this study, we aimed to test this hypothesis systematically using four extant fMRI datasets in WS. Participants included 29 adult subjects with WS (17 men) demonstrating a wide range of standardized IQ scores (composite IQ mean = 67, SD = 17.2). We extracted average BOLD activation for both cognitive and task-specific anatomically defined regions of interest (ROIs) in each individual and correlated BOLD with composite IQ scores, verbal IQ scores and non-verbal IQ scores in Spearman rank correlation tests. RESULTS: Of the 312 correlations performed, only six correlations (2%) in four ROIs reached statistical significance at a P value < 0.01, but none survived correction for multiple testing. All six correlations were positive. Therefore, none supports the hypothesis that IQ is negatively correlated with BOLD response. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the inclusion of subjects with below normal IQ does not introduce a confounding factor, at least for some types of fMRI studies with low cognitive load. By including subjects who are representative of IQ range for the targeted disorder, findings are more likely to generalize to that population

Examining Factors in the Research Institute on Addictions Self-Inventory (RIASI): Associations with Alcohol Use and Problems at Assessment and Follow-Up

Impaired driving is a leading cause of alcohol-related deaths and injuries. Rehabilitation or remedial programs, involving assessment and screening of convicted impaired drivers to determine problem severity and appropriate programs, are an important component of society’s response to this problem. Ontario’s remedial program, Back on Track (BOT), involves an assessment process that includes administration of the Research Institute on Addictions Self-Inventory (RIASI) to determine assignment to an education or treatment program. The purpose of this study is to identify factors within the RIASI and examine how factor scores are associated with alcohol use and problem indicators at assessment and six-month follow-up. The sample included 22,298 individuals who completed BOT from 2000 to 2005. Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted on RIASI data and an eight factor solution was retained: (1) Negative Affect, (2) Sensation Seeking, (3) Alcohol-Quantity, (4) Social Conformity, (5) High Risk Lifestyle, (6) Alcohol Problems, (7) Interpersonal Competence, and (8) Family History. Regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between factors and alcohol and problem measures obtained at assessment and at follow-up. Most factors, except for Interpersonal Competence, were associated with more alcohol use and problems at assessment. A similar pattern was observed at 6-month follow-up, but interestingly some factors (Negative Affect, Sensation Seeking, Alcohol-Quantity and Family History) predicted fewer days of alcohol use. The Interpersonal Competence factor was associated with significantly lower levels of alcohol use and problems at both assessment and follow-up. This work suggests that the RIASI provides information on several domains that have important relationships with alcohol problem severity and outcomes

Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii in water samples from Scotland and a comparison between the 529bp real-time PCR and ITS1 nested PCR

Waterborne transmission of Toxoplasma gondii is a potential public health risk and there are currently no agreed optimised methods for the recovery, processing and detection of T. gondii oocysts in water samples. In this study modified methods of T. gondii oocyst recovery and DNA extraction were applied to 1427 samples collected from 147 public water supplies throughout Scotland. T. gondii DNA was detected, using real time PCR (qPCR) targeting the 529bp repeat element, in 8.79% of interpretable samples (124 out of 1411 samples). The samples which were positive for T. gondii DNA originated from a third of the sampled water sources. The samples which were positive by qPCR and some of the negative samples were reanalysed using ITS1 nested PCR (nPCR) and results compared. The 529bp qPCR was the more sensitive technique and a full analysis of assay performance, by Bayesian analysis using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo method, was completed which demonstrated the efficacy of this method for the detection of T. gondii in water samples

Cryptosporidiosis in calves

Cryptosporidiosis is a widespread zoonotic parasitic disease affecting livestock all over the world. Despite its prevalence, there is very little evidence about transmission routes to young calves, and how it could affect them long-term. Many commonly used disinfectants on farm are unable to inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts, and some commercially available disinfectants, which claim to work, do not appear to have sufficient evidence available to the research and farming community. This work shows multiple commercial disinfectants which have been directly compared against each other for their efficacy against Cryptosporidium oocysts. The idea that transmission could occur from adult cattle via direct contamination of calf pens with faecal material has been disputed in scientific literature. Older research suggests that adult cattle are not infected with the same species that the calves have, however more recent research with new oocyst concentration techniques has found this not to be the case. It is essential therefore that the genotypes of Cryptosporidium are determined to see if adult cattle pose a risk to their calves. Genotyping using microsatellite analysis gives a more in-depth look at the type of C. parvum present. The aim was, therefore, to determine the risk that adult cattle pose to their calves with regard to C. parvum oocyst transmission on both a dairy and a beef farm in Scotland. Using these methods, it was discovered that adult dairy cattle are unlikely to play a major role in the transmission of C. parvum to their calves. Most of the adult cattle on the dairy farm were predominantly shedding C. parvum however calves on the same farm presented with different multilocus genotype. On the beef farm, however, many of the adult cattle did share the same multilocus genotype as their calves, and so pose more of a risk for oocyst transmission to their calves. The species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium present in Scottish wildlife has very few published studies, therefore the aim was to determine the prevalence of C. parvum in samples from rabbits and pheasants in Scotland. Rabbit faecal samples collected from 18 farms from across Scotland revealed C. parvum to be the most prevalent species; an unusual discovery as it was previosuly believed that C. cuniculus was the most prevalent species in wild rabbits. Despite this the DNA was very difficult to genotype which may indicate that the oocyst load in the faeces of rabbits was small, or that the PCR may have been affected by inhibition. If there is little DNA present, rabbits are unlikely to pose a major threat to calves with regard to C. parvum oocyst transmission. The pheasants also presented with C. parvum as the most prevalent species, although very few shared the same genotype that was present in the calves at the pheasant samples location. Very few oocysts are required to cause cryptosporidiosis in a calf, so even if co-located wildlife do not appear to be shedding high numbers of oocysts, there is still a small risk of transmission present. Young calves affected with cryptosporidiosis tend to make a full recovery under the right management, and the clinical signs clear up within a couple of weeks. It is not known whether or not there is a long-term effect on the calves ability to gain weight following infection with the parasite. Therefore the aim was to compare calves with different levels of clinical cryptosporidiosis to calves with no signs of clinical disease and weigh these animals periodically until they went to market at 6 months of age. It was found that calves with severe disease gained significantly less weight than those with no clinical disease and even animals with mild cryptosporidiosis suffered reduced weight gain over 6 months. This result demonstrates the economic cost that the parasite could have to the farming community on a long-term basis. Commonly used disinfectants are typically ineffective against Cryptosporidium oocysts, and those that are on the market have very little evidence to support their efficacy. Therefore, seven commercial disinfectants were tested for their efficacy to inactivate Cryptosporidium oocysts based on excystation rate and sporozoite to shell ratio. It was identified that hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants are the most successful at inactivating oocysts, but only when the disinfectant is freshly prepared. Testing the efficacy of disinfectants once the disinfectant had been made up for 7 days showed that the best performing disinfectant with regard to having the least degradation over seven days was KENOTMCOX. As many farmers are unlikely to make disinfectant up fresh every time it is used, it is useful to know that despite the high efficacy of some products, time since the product was prepared significantly reduces this. It was also found that pens contaminated with faecal material are likely to reduce the efficacy of hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants and so it is important to clean pens before disinfection. Therefore, this PhD has addressed the knowledge gaps in the literature regarding the role of adult cattle, rabbits and pheasants in the transmission of C. parvum to calves. Neither one poses a major risk due to the low oocyst output and mixed C. parvum genotypes present. It is more likely therefore that calves maintain infection through widespread environmental contamination caused by other infected calves. This work has shown how infection with C. parvum in the first few weeks of life has a significant effect on the weight gain achieved over a 6-month period and so cryptosporidiosis has a significant effect on livestock production and on the profitability of the farm business. The efficacy of commercial disinfectants has provided the advice that disinfectants should be made up fresh and used on an area that has already been cleaned of faecal material in order to inactivate as many of the oocysts as possible